ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook IP 2014
$102.38
ASHRAE Handbook – Refrigeration (I-P)
| Published By | Publication Date | Number of Pages |
| ASHRAE | 2014 | 761 |
The 2014 ASHRAE Handbook—Refrigeration covers the refrigeration equipment and systems for applications other than human comfort. This volume includes data and guidance on cooling, freezing, and storing food; industrial and medical applications of refrigeration; and low-temperature refrigeration.
PDF Catalog
| PDF Pages | PDF Title |
|---|---|
| 1 | R14 FrontMatter_IP |
| 2 | Dedicated To The Advancement Of The Profession And Its Allied Industries DISCLAIMER |
| 9 | IP_R14_Ch01 Application |
| 10 | Table 1 Recommended Gas Line Velocities System Safety Basic Piping Principles Refrigerant Line Velocities Refrigerant Flow Rates Fig. 1 Flow Rate per Ton of Refrigeration for Refrigerant 22 Fig. 2 Flow Rate per Ton of Refrigeration for Refrigerant 134a |
| 11 | Table 2 Approximate Effect of Gas Line Pressure Drops on R-22 Compressor Capacity and Powera Refrigerant Line Sizing Pressure Drop Considerations |
| 12 | Table 3 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 22 (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 4 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 22 (Intermediate- or Low-Stage Duty) |
| 13 | Table 5 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 134a (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Location and Arrangement of Piping |
| 14 | Protection Against Damage to Piping Piping Insulation Vibration and Noise in Piping Refrigerant Line Capacity Tables Equivalent Lengths of Valves and Fittings |
| 15 | Table 6 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 404A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 16 | Table 7 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 507A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 17 | Table 8 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 410A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 18 | Table 9 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 407C (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 19 | Table 10 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 22 (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 11 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 134a (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 20 | Table 12 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 404A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 21 | Table 13 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 507A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 22 | Table 14 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 410A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 23 | Table 15 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 407C (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 24 | Oil Management in Refrigerant Lines Table 16 Fitting Losses in Equivalent Feet of Pipe |
| 25 | Table 17 Special Fitting Losses in Equivalent Feet of Pipe |
| 26 | Table 18 Valve Losses in Equivalent Feet of Pipe Fig. 3 Double-Suction Riser Construction |
| 27 | Table 19 Minimum Refrigeration Capacity in Tons for Oil Entrainment up Hot-Gas Risers (Type L Copper Tubing) Fig. 4 Suction Line Piping at Evaporator Coils |
| 28 | Fig. 5 Typical Piping from Evaporators Located above and below Common Suction Line Piping at Multiple Compressors Suction Piping Fig. 6 Suction and Hot-Gas Headers for Multiple Compressors Discharge Piping |
| 29 | Fig. 7 Parallel Compressors with Gravity Oil Flow Interconnecting Crankcases Fig. 8 Interconnecting Piping for Multiple Condensing Units Piping at Various System Components Flooded Fluid Coolers Fig. 9 Typical Piping at Flooded Fluid Cooler |
| 30 | Refrigerant Feed Devices Fig. 10 Two-Circuit Direct-Expansion Cooler Connections (for Single-Compressor System) Direct-Expansion Fluid Chillers Fig. 11 Typical Refrigerant Piping in Liquid Chilling Package with Two Completely Separate Circuits Fig. 12 Direct-Expansion Cooler with Pilot-Operated Control Valve Direct-Expansion Air Coils |
| 31 | Fig. 13 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Top-Feed, Free-Draining) Fig. 14 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Horizontal Airflow) Fig. 15 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Bottom-Feed) Flooded Evaporators |
| 32 | Fig. 16 Flooded Evaporator (Gravity Circulation) Fig. 17 Flooded Evaporator (Forced Circulation) Discharge (Hot-Gas) Lines Fig. 18 Double Hot-Gas Riser |
| 33 | Table 20 Minimum Refrigeration Capacity in Tons for Oil Entrainment up Suction Risers (Type L Copper Tubing) Fig. 19 Hot-Gas Loop |
| 34 | Defrost Gas Supply Lines Heat Exchangers and Vessels Receivers Fig. 20 Shell-and-Tube Condenser to Receiver Piping (Through-Type Receiver) Fig. 21 Shell-and-Tube Condenser to Receiver Piping (Surge-Type Receiver) Fig. 22 Parallel Condensers with Through-Type Receiver |
| 35 | Table 21 Refrigerant Flow Capacity Data For Defrost Lines |
| 36 | Fig. 23 Parallel Condensers with Surge-Type Receiver Fig. 24 Single-Circuit Evaporative Condenser with Receiver and Liquid Subcooling Coil Air-Cooled Condensers |
| 37 | Fig. 25 Multiple Evaporative Condensers with Equalization to Condenser Inlets Fig. 26 Multiple Air-Cooled Condensers Refrigeration Accessories Liquid-Suction Heat Exchangers |
| 38 | Fig. 27 Soldered Tube Heat Exchanger Fig. 28 Shell-and-Finned-Coil Heat Exchanger Fig. 29 Shell-and-Finned-Coil Exchanger Installed to Prevent Liquid Floodback Fig. 30 Tube-in-Tube Heat Exchanger Two-Stage Subcoolers Fig. 31 Flash-Type Cooler Discharge Line Oil Separators |
| 39 | Fig. 32 Closed-Type Subcooler Surge Drums or Accumulators Compressor Floodback Protection |
| 40 | Fig. 33 Compressor Floodback Protection Using Accumulator with Controlled Bleed Refrigerant Driers and Moisture Indicators Fig. 34 Drier with Piping Connections Strainers Liquid Indicators |
| 41 | Fig. 35 Sight Glass and Charging Valve Locations Oil Receivers Purge Units Head Pressure Control for Refrigerant Condensers Water-Cooled Condensers Condenser-Water-Regulating Valves Water Bypass Fig. 36 Head Pressure Control for Condensers Used with Cooling Towers (Water Bypass Modulation) Evaporative Condensers |
| 42 | Fig. 37 Head Pressure Control for Evaporative Condenser (Air Intake Modulation) Fig. 38 Head Pressure Control for Evaporative Condenser (Air Bypass Modulation) Air-Cooled Condensers Microchannel Condensers Keeping Liquid from Crankcase During Off Cycles Automatic Pumpdown Control (Direct-Expansion Air-Cooling Systems) |
| 43 | Crankcase Oil Heater (Direct-Expansion Systems) Control for Direct-Expansion Water Chillers Effect of Short Operating Cycle Hot-Gas Bypass Arrangements Full (100%) Unloading for Starting Full (100%) Unloading for Capacity Control |
| 44 | Fig. 39 Hot-Gas Bypass Arrangements Minimizing Refrigerant Charge in Commercial Systems |
| 45 | Refrigerant Retrofitting Temperature Glide |
| 46 | References |
| 47 | IP_R14_Ch02 History of Ammonia Refrigeration Ammonia Refrigerant for HVAC Systems Equipment Compressors |
| 48 | Reciprocating Compressors Fig. 1 Schematic of Reciprocating Compressors Operating in Parallel |
| 49 | Fig. 2 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient Temperatures Above Freezing Fig. 3 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient Temperatures Below Freezing Rotary Vane, Low-Stage Compressors |
| 50 | Fig. 4 Rotary Vane Booster Compressor Cooling with Lubricant Screw Compressors Fig. 5 Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with Optional Oil Pump |
| 51 | Fig. 6 Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with Liquid Injection Oil Cooling Fig. 7 Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with External Heat Exchanger for Oil Cooling Condensers Condenser and Receiver Piping |
| 52 | Fig. 8 Thermosiphon System with Receiver Mounted Above Oil Cooler Fig. 9 Horizontal Condenser and Top Inlet Receiver Piping Fig. 10 Parallel Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Evaporative Condensers |
| 53 | Fig. 11 Single Evaporative Condenser with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 12 Evaporative Condenser with Inside Water Tank Fig. 13 Two Evaporative Condensers with Trapped Piping to Receiver |
| 54 | Fig. 14 Method of Reducing Condenser Outlet Sizes Fig. 15 Piping for Shell-and-Tube and Evaporative Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 16 Piping for Parallel Condensers with Surge-Type Receiver Evaporators |
| 55 | Fig. 17 Piping for Parallel Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Evaporator Piping Fig. 18 Piping for Thermostatic Expansion Valve Application for Automatic Defrost on Unit Cooler Unit Cooler: Flooded Operation |
| 56 | Fig. 19 Arrangement for Automatic Defrost of Air Blower with Flooded Coil High-Side Float Control Fig. 20 Arrangement for Horizontal Liquid Cooler and High-Side Float Low-Side Float Control |
| 57 | Fig. 21 Piping for Evaporator and Low-Side Float with Horizontal Liquid Cooler Vessels Fig. 22 Intercooler |
| 58 | Fig. 23 Arrangement for Compound System with Vertical Intercooler and Suction Trap Fig. 24 Suction Accumulator with Warm Liquid Coil |
| 59 | Fig. 25 Equalized Pressure Pump Transfer System Fig. 26 Gravity Transfer System Fig. 27 Piping for Vertical Suction Trap and High-Head Pump Fig. 28 Gage Glass Assembly for Ammonia |
| 60 | Fig. 29 Electronic Liquid Level Control Fig. 30 Noncondensable Gas Purger Unit Piping Recommended Material Fittings Pipe Joints Pipe Location |
| 61 | Table 1 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Ammonia with Pressure Drops of 0.25 and 0.50°F per 100 ft Equivalent Pipe Sizing Controls Liquid Feed Control |
| 62 | Table 2 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Ammonia (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 3 Liquid Ammonia Line Capacities |
| 63 | Controlling Load During Pulldown Operation at Varying Loads and Temperatures Fig. 31 Hot-Gas Injection Evaporator for Operations at Low Load Electronic Control Lubricant Management Valves |
| 64 | Fig. 32 Dual Relief Valve Fitting for Ammonia Isolated Line Sections Insulation and Vapor Retarders Systems Single-Stage Systems Fig. 33 Shell-and-Coil Economizer Arrangement Economized Systems |
| 65 | Fig. 34 Screw Compressor with Economizer/Receiver Multistage Systems Fig. 35 Two-Stage System with High- and Low-Temperature Loads Two-Stage Screw Compressor System |
| 66 | Fig. 36 Compound Ammonia System with Screw Compressor Thermosiphon Cooled Converting Single-Stage into Two-Stage Systems Liquid Recirculation Systems |
| 67 | Fig. 37 Piping for Single-Stage System with Low-Pressure Receiver and Liquid Ammonia Recirculation Hot-Gas Defrost |
| 68 | Fig. 38 Conventional Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle Fig. 39 Demand Defrost Cycle |
| 69 | Fig. 40 Equipment Room Hot-Gas Pressure Control System Fig. 41 Hot-Gas Condensate Return Drainer |
| 70 | Fig. 42 Soft Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle Double-Riser Designs for Large Evaporator Coils Fig. 43 Recirculated Liquid Return System |
| 71 | Fig. 44 Double Low-Temperature Suction Risers Safety Considerations Avoiding Hydraulic Shock |
| 72 | Hazards Related to System Cleanliness References Bibliography |
| 75 | IP_R14_Ch03 Table 1 Refrigerant Data Table 2 Comparative Refrigerant Performance per Ton of Refrigeration |
| 76 | Fig. 1 CO2 Expansion-Phase Changes Fig. 2 CO2 Phase Diagram Applications Transcritical CO2 Refrigeration |
| 77 | CO2 Cascade System System Design Transcritical CO2 Systems Fig. 3 Transcritical CO2 Refrigeration Cycle in Appliances and Vending Machines Fig. 4 CO2 Heat Pump for Ambient Heat to Hot Water |
| 78 | CO2/HFC Cascade Systems Fig. 5 R-717/CO2 Cascade System with CO2 Hot-Gas Defrosting Fig. 6 CO2 Cascade System with Two Temperature Levels Ammonia/CO2 Cascade Refrigeration System System Design Pressures |
| 79 | Fig. 7 Dual-Temperature Supermarket System: R-404A and CO2 with Cascade Condenser Valves |
| 80 | CO2 Monitoring Water in CO2 Systems Fig. 8 Dual-Temperature Ammonia (R-717) Cascade System Fig. 9 Water Solubility in Various Refrigerants |
| 81 | Fig. 10 Water Solubility in CO2 System Safety Piping Carbon Dioxide Piping Materials Carbon Steel Piping for CO2 Pipe Sizing |
| 82 | Fig. 11 Pressure Drop for Various Refrigerants Table 3 Pipe Size Comparison Between NH3 and CO2 Heat Exchangers and Vessels Gravity Liquid Separator Recirculator Cascade Heat Exchanger Compressors for CO2 Refrigeration Systems Transcritical Compressors for Commercial Refrigeration |
| 83 | Fig. 12 CO2 Transcritical Compressor Configuration Chart Compressors for Industrial Applications Lubricants Evaporators |
| 84 | Defrost Electric Defrost Hot-Gas Defrost Reverse-Cycle Defrost |
| 85 | High Pressure Liquid Defrost Water Defrost Installation, Start-up, and Commissioning References |
| 86 | Bibliography Acknowledgment |
| 87 | IP_R14_Ch04 Terminology Advantages and Disadvantages |
| 88 | Overfeed System Operation Mechanical Pump Fig. 1 Liquid Overfeed with Mechanical Pump Fig. 2 Pump Circulation, Horizontal Separator Gas Pump Fig. 3 Double-Pumper-Drum System |
| 89 | Fig. 4 Constant-Pressure Liquid Overfeed System Refrigerant Distribution Fig. 5 Liquid Overfeed System Connected on Common System with Gravity-Flooded Evaporators |
| 90 | Oil in System Fig. 6 Oil Drain Pot Connected to Low-Pressure Receiver Circulating Rate Table 1 Recommended Minimum Circulating Rate Pump Selection and Installation Types of Pumps |
| 91 | Fig. 7 Charts for Determining Rate of Refrigerant Feed (No Flash Gas) Installing and Connecting Mechanical Pumps Controls |
| 92 | Evaporator Design Considerations Top Feed Versus Bottom Feed Refrigerant Charge |
| 93 | Start-Up and Operation Operating Costs and Efficiency Line Sizing Low-Pressure Receiver Sizing |
| 94 | Fig. 8 Basic Horizontal Gas-and-Liquid Separator Fig. 9 Basic Vertical Gravity Gas and Liquid Separator Table 2 Maximum Effective Separation Velocities for R-717, R-22, R-12, and R-502, with Steady Flow Conditions |
| 95 | References Bibliography |
| 97 | IP_R14_Ch05 Refrigeration System Components |
| 98 | Selecting Design Balance Points |
| 99 | Fig. 1 Brine Chiller Balance Curve Energy and Mass Balances |
| 100 | System Performance |
| 101 | IP_R14_Ch06 Refrigerants Environmental Acceptability Refrigerant Analysis Flammability and Combustibility Lubricants Polyol Esters |
| 102 | Table 1 Composition, Viscosity, and Refrigerant Miscibility of POE Lubricants Fig. 1 General Structures of Polyol Ester (POE) Refrigeration Lubricants Polyalkylene Glycols Polyvinyl Ethers (PVEs) Fig. 2 General Structure of Polyvinyl Ether (PVE) Refrigeration Lubricant |
| 103 | System Reactions Thermal Stability Table 2 Inherent Thermal Stability of Halocarbon Refrigerants |
| 104 | Fig. 3 Stability of Refrigerant 22 Control System Fig. 4 Stability of Refrigerant 12 Control System |
| 105 | Hydrolysis of Halogenated Refrigerants and Polyol Ester Lubricants Table 3 Rate of Hydrolysis in Water (Grams per Litre of Water per Year) |
| 106 | Oxidation of Oils Effects of Lubricant Additives Copper Plating |
| 107 | Corrosion Compatibility of Materials Process Chemicals |
| 108 | Electrical Insulation Magnet Wire Insulation Fig. 5 Loss Curves of Various Insulating Materials Table 4 Maximum Temperature tmax for Hermetic Wire Enamels in R-22 at 65 psia |
| 109 | Table 5 Effect of Liquid R-22 on Abrasion Resistance (Cycles to Failure) Varnishes Ground Insulation Elastomers |
| 110 | Plastics Chemical Evaluation Techniques Sealed-Tube or Pressure Vessel Material Tests Component Tests System Tests Capillary Tube Clogging Tests Mitigation Aspects |
| 111 | Sustainability References |
| 113 | Bibliography |
| 115 | IP_R14_Ch07 Moisture Sources of Moisture Effects of Moisture Table 1 Solubility of Water in Liquid Phase of Certain Refrigerants, ppm (by weight) |
| 116 | Table 2 Distribution Ratio of Water Between Vapor and Liquid Phases of Certain Refrigerants Drying Methods |
| 117 | Moisture Indicators Moisture Measurement Desiccants |
| 118 | Table 3 Reactivation of Desiccants Fig. 1 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Liquid R-12 and Three Common Desiccants at 75°F Fig. 2 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Liquid R-22 and Three Common Desiccants at 75°F |
| 119 | Fig. 3 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Activated Alumina at Various Temperatures in Liquid R-12 Fig. 4 Moisture Equilibrium Curve for Molecular Sieve in Liquid R-134a at 125°F Desiccant Applications Fig. 1 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Three Common Desiccants in R-134a and 2% POE Lubricant at 75°F Fig. 5 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Three Common Desiccants in Liquid R-134a and 2% POE Lubricant at 75°F Fig. 6 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Three Common Desiccants in Liquid R-134a and 2% POE Lubricant at 125°F |
| 120 | Fig. 7 Moisture Equilibrium Curve for Molecular Sieve in Liquid R-410A at 125°F Driers Drier Selection Testing and Rating Other Contaminants Metallic Contaminants and Dirt |
| 121 | Organic Contaminants: Sludge, Wax, and Tars Residual Cleaning Agents |
| 122 | Noncondensable Gases Motor Burnouts Field Assembly System Cleanup Procedure After Hermetic Motor Burnout Procedure |
| 123 | Fig. 8 Maximum Recommended Filter-Drier Pressure Drop Special System Characteristics and Procedures |
| 124 | Contaminant Control During Retrofit Chiller Decontamination System Sampling |
| 125 | References |
| 126 | Bibliography |
| 127 | IP_R14_Ch08 Dehydration (Moisture Removal) Sources of Moisture Dehydration by Heat, Vacuum, or Dry Air |
| 128 | Table 1 Typical Factory Dehydration and Moisture-Measuring Methods for Refrigeration Systems Combination Methods |
| 129 | Moisture Measurement |
| 130 | Charging Testing for Leaks Leak Detection Methods |
| 131 | Special Considerations Performance Testing Compressor Testing |
| 132 | Testing Complete Systems Testing of Components |
| 133 | References Bibliography |
| 134 | IP_R14_Ch09 Emissions Types Design Installation Servicing and Decommissioning Training |
| 135 | Table 1 Leak Test Sensitivity Comparison Leak Detection Global Detection Local Detection Automated Performance Monitoring Systems Recovery, Recycling, and Reclamation |
| 136 | Installation and Service Practices Contaminants Recovery |
| 137 | Fig. 1 Recovery Components Recycling Fig. 2 Single-Pass Recycling Fig. 3 Multiple-Pass Recycling Equipment Standards |
| 138 | Special Considerations and Equipment for Handling Multiple Refrigerants Reclamation Purity Standards References |
| 139 | Bibliography |
| 140 | IP_R14_Ch10 Design Considerations for Below- Ambient Refrigerant Piping Insulation Properties at Below-Ambient Temperatures |
| 141 | Insulation System Water Resistance Insulation Systems Pipe Preparation for Corrosion Control |
| 142 | Table 1 Protective Coating Systems for Carbon Steel Piping |
| 143 | Insulation Materials Table 2 Properties of Insulation Materialsd |
| 144 | Table 3 Cellular Glass Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions Insulation Joint Sealant/Adhesive Vapor Retarders Table 4 Cellular Glass Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions |
| 145 | Table 5 Flexible Elastomeric Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions Table 6 Flexible Elastomeric Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions Weather Barrier Jacketing |
| 146 | Table 7 Closed-Cell Phenolic Foam Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions Table 8 Closed-Cell Phenolic Foam Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions Installation Guidelines |
| 147 | Table 9 Polyisocyanurate Foam Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions Table 10 Polyisocyanurate Foam Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions |
| 148 | Table 11 Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions Table 12 Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions |
| 149 | Table 13 Suggested Pipe Support Spacing for Straight Horizontal Runs Table 14 Shield Dimensions for Insulated Pipe and Tubing Table 15 COLTE Values for Various Materials Maintenance of Insulation Systems References |
| 150 | Bibliography |
| 151 | IP_R14_Ch11 Control Switches Pressure Switches Fig. 1 Typical Pressure Switch |
| 152 | Table 1 Various Types of Pressure Switches Fig. 2 Miniaturized Pressure Switch Temperature Switches (Thermostats) Fig. 3 Indirect Temperature Switch Fig. 4 Direct Temperature Switch Differential Switches |
| 153 | Fig. 5 Differential Switch Schematic Fig. 6 Differential Pressure Switch Fig. 7 Magnetic Float Switch Float Switches Operation and Selection Application |
| 154 | Control Sensors Pressure Transducers Thermistors Fig. 8 Typical NTC Thermistor Characteristic Resistance Temperature Detectors Thermocouples Liquid Level Sensors Operation and Selection |
| 155 | Fig. 9 Capacitance Probe in (A) Vertical Receiver and (B) Auxiliary Level Column Control Valves Thermostatic Expansion Valves Operation Fig. 10 Typical Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 11 Typical Balanced Port Thermostatic Expansion Valve |
| 156 | Fig. 12 Thermostatic Expansion Valve Controlling Flow of Liquid R- 410A Entering Evaporator, Assuming R- 410A Charge in Bulb Capacity Fig. 13 Typical Gradient Curve for Thermostatic Expansion Valves |
| 157 | Thermostatic Charges Fig. 14 Pressure/Temperature Relationship of R-134a Gas Charge in Thermostatic Element Fig. 15 Typical Superheat Characteristics of Common Thermostatic Charges |
| 158 | Type of Equalization Fig. 16 Bulb Location for Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 17 Pilot-Operated Thermostatic Expansion Valve Controlling Liquid Refrigerant Flow to Direct-Expansion Chiller Alternative Construction Types |
| 159 | Application |
| 160 | Fig. 18 Bulb Location When Suction Main is Above Evaporator Fig. 19 Typical Block Valve Electric Expansion Valves Fig. 20 Fluid-Filled Heat-Motor Valve |
| 161 | Fig. 21 Magnetically Modulated Valve Fig. 22 Pulse-Width-Modulated Valve Fig. 23 Step Motor with (A) Lead Screw and (B) Gear Drive with Stem Seal Regulating and Throttling Valves |
| 162 | Fig. 24 Electronically Controlled, Electrically Operated Evaporator Pressure Regulator Evaporator-Pressure-Regulating Valves Operation Fig. 25 Direct-Operated Evaporator Pressure Regulator Fig. 26 Pilot-Operated Evaporator Pressure Regulator (Self-Powered) |
| 163 | Fig. 27 Pilot-Operated Evaporator Pressure Regulator (High-Pressure-Driven) Selection Application Fig. 28 Evaporator Pressure Regulators in Multiple System |
| 164 | Constant-Pressure Expansion Valves Operation Fig. 29 Constant-Pressure Expansion Valve Selection Application Suction-Pressure-Regulating Valves Operation |
| 165 | Fig. 30 Direct-Acting Suction-Pressure Regulator Fig. 31 Condenser Pressure Regulation (Two-Valve Arrangement) Selection Application Condenser-Pressure- Regulating Valves Operation |
| 166 | Fig. 32 Three-Way Condenser-Pressure-Regulating Valve Application Discharge Bypass Valves Operation Selection |
| 167 | Application High-Side Float Valves Operation Fig. 33 High-Side Float Valve Selection Application Low-Side Float Valves Operation Fig. 34 Low-Side Float Valve Selection Application |
| 168 | Solenoid Valves Fig. 35 Normally Closed Direct-Acting Solenoid Valve with Hammer-Blow Feature Fig. 36 Normally Closed Pilot-Operated Solenoid Valve with Direct-Lift Feature Operation |
| 169 | Fig. 37 Normally Closed Pilot-Operated Solenoid Valve with Hammer-Blow and Mechanically Linked Piston-Pin Plunger Fig. 38 Four-Way Refrigerant-Reversing Valve Used in Heat Pumps (Shown in Cooling Mode) |
| 170 | Fig. 39 Four-Way Refrigerant-Reversing Valve (Shown in Heating Mode) Application Condensing Water Regulators |
| 171 | Two-Way Regulators Fig. 40 Two-Way Condensing Water Regulator Three-Way Regulators Fig. 41 Three-Way Condensing Water Regulator Check Valves |
| 172 | Seat Materials Applications Relief Devices Safety Relief Valves Fig. 42 Pop-Type Safety Relief Valves |
| 173 | Fig. 43 Diaphragm Relief Valve Functional Relief Valves Fig. 44 Safety Relief Devices Table 2 Values of f for Discharge Capacity of Pressure Relief Devices Other Safety Relief Devices |
| 174 | Discharge-Line Lubricant Separators Fig. 45 Discharge-Line Lubricant Separator Selection Application Capillary Tubes Theory |
| 175 | Fig. 46 Pressure and Temperature Distribution along Typical Capillary Tube System Design Factors Capacity Balance Characteristic |
| 176 | Fig. 47 Effect of Capillary Tube Selection on Refrigerant Distribution Fig. 48 Capacity Balance Characteristic of Capillary System Optimum Selection and Refrigerant Charge Fig. 49 Test Setup for Determining Capacity Balance Characteristic of Compressor, Capillary, and Heat Exchanger Application |
| 177 | Adiabatic Capillary Tube Selection Procedure Fig. 50 Mass Flow Rate of R-134a Through Capillary Tube Fig. 51 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R-134a Fig. 52 Mass Flow Rate of R- 410A Through Capillary Tube Fig. 53 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R- 410A for Subcooled Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet |
| 178 | Table 3 Capillary Tube Dimensionless Parameters Fig. 54 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R- 410A for Two-Phase Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Sample Calculations Capillary-Tube/Suction-Line Heat Exchanger Selection Procedure |
| 179 | Fig. 55 Mass Flow Rate of R-22 Through Capillary Tube Fig. 56 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R-22 for Subcooled Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 57 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R-22 for Two-Phase Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Capillary Tube Selection Fig. 58 Inlet Condition Rating Chart for R-134a |
| 180 | Fig. 59 Capillary Tube Geometry Correction Factor for Subcooled R-134a Inlet Conditions Fig. 60 Suction-Line Condition Correction Factor for R-134a Subcooled Inlet Conditions Fig. 61 Heat Exchange Length Correction Factor for R-134a Subcooled Inlet Conditions Fig. 62 Capillary Tube Geometry Correction Factor for R-134a Quality Inlet Conditions Fig. 63 Suction-Line Condition Correction Factor for R-134a Quality Inlet Conditions Generalized Prediction Equations |
| 181 | Table 4 Capillary-Tube/Suction-Line Heat Exchanger Dimensionless Parameters Sample Calculations Short-Tube Restrictors Application |
| 182 | Fig. 64 Schematic of Movable Short-Tube Restrictor Fig. 65 R-22 Pressure Profile at Various Downstream Pressures with Constant Upstream Conditions: L = 0.5 in., D = 0.053 in., Subcooling 25°F Fig. 66 R-22 Mass Flow Rate Versus Condenser Pressure for Reference Short Tube: L = 0.5 in., D = 0.053 in., Sharp-Edged Selection |
| 183 | Fig. 67 Correction Factor for Short-Tube Geometry (R-22) Fig. 68 Correction Factor for L/D Versus Subcooling (R-22) Fig. 69 Correction Factor for Inlet Chamfering (R-22) |
| 184 | References Bibliography |
| 185 | IP_R14_Ch12 Tests for Boundary and Mixed Lubrication |
| 186 | Refrigeration Lubricant Requirements |
| 187 | Mineral Oil Composition and Component Characteristics Fig. 1 Some Typical Chemical Substructure Components of Mineral Oils Table 1 API Mineral Base Oil Designations |
| 188 | Table 2 Typical Properties of Refrigeration Lubricants at ISO 32 Viscosity Grade Component Characteristics Applications Synthetic Lubricants |
| 189 | Alkylbenzenes (ABs) Fig. 2 Representative Chemical Structure of Alkylbenzene (AB) Polyalkylene Glycols (PAGs) Fig. 3 Representative Chemical Structure of Polyalkylene Glycol (PAG) Polyalphaolefins (PAOs) |
| 190 | Fig. 4 Representative Idealized Chemical Structures of Polyalphaolefins Polyol Esters (POE) Table 3 Typical Physical Properties and Composition of PAO Lubricants Fig. 5 Polyols Used for Manufacture of Polyol Ester (POE) Refrigeration Lubricants |
| 191 | Table 4 Carboxylic Acids Commonly Used in the Manufacture of Polyol Ester Refrigeration Lubricants Table 5 Examples of Polyol Ester Lubricants Used in Refrigeration Polyvinyl Ethers (PVEs) |
| 192 | Fig. 6 General Chemical Structure of a Polyvinyl Ether (PVE) Lubricant Additives Lubricant Properties Viscosity and Viscosity Grades |
| 193 | Viscosity Index Table 6 Viscosity System for Industrial Fluid Lubricants (ASTM D2422) Pressure/Viscosity Coefficient and Compressibility Factor Table 7 Examples of Lubricant Types and Viscosity Ranges as Function of Refrigerant and Application* |
| 194 | Fig. 7 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for ISO 108 HVI and LVI Lubricants Density Relative Molecular Mass Pour Point |
| 195 | Fig. 8 Variation of Refrigeration Lubricant Density with Temperature Table 8 Increase in Vapor Pressure and Temperature Volatility: Flash and Fire Points Vapor Pressure Aniline Point |
| 196 | Table 9 Absorption of Low-Solubility Refrigerant Gases in Oil Solubility of Refrigerants in Oils Lubricant/Refrigerant Solutions Density |
| 197 | Fig. 9 Density Correction Factors Fig. 10 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 11 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 100 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Thermodynamics and Transport Phenomena |
| 198 | Fig. 12 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 32 Polyalkylene Glycol Butyl Ether Lubricant Fig. 13 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 80 Polyalkylene Glycol Diol Lubricant Pressure/Temperature/Solubility Relations Fig. 14 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 15 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 16 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Mixed- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant |
| 199 | Fig. 17 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 18 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 32 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 19 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 20 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Tetrahydrofural Alcohol-Initiated, Methoxy- Terminated, Propylene Oxide Polyether Lubricant Fig. 21 P-T-S Diagram for Completely Miscible Refrigerant/Lubricant Solutions Mutual Solubility |
| 200 | Table 10 Mutual Solubility of Refrigerants and Mineral Oil Fig. 22 P-T-S Diagram for Partially Miscible Refrigerant/Oil Solutions Effects of Partial Miscibility in Refrigerant Systems |
| 201 | Fig. 23 P-T-S Relations of R-22 with ISO 43 White Oil (0% CA, 55% CN, 45% CP) Solubility Curves and Miscibility Diagrams Fig. 24 Critical Solubilities of Refrigerants with ISO 32 Naphthenic Lubricant (CA 12%, CN 44%, CP 44%) Effect of Lubricant Type on Solubility and Miscibility |
| 202 | Fig. 25 Critical Solubilities of Refrigerants with ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Lubricant Effect of Refrigerant Type on Miscibility with Lubricants Solubilities and Viscosities of Lubricant/Refrigerant Solutions Lubricant Influence on Lubricant Return |
| 203 | Fig. 26 Effect of Oil Properties on Miscibility with R-22 Fig. 27 Viscosity of Mixtures of Various Refrigerants and ISO 32 Paraffinic Oil Fig. 28 Solubility of R-22 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil |
| 204 | Table 11 Critical Miscibility Values of R-22 with Different Oils Table 12 Critical Solution Temperatures for Selected Refrigerant/Lubricant Pairs |
| 205 | Fig. 29 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 32 Naphthenic and Paraffinic Base Oils Fig. 30 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 65 Naphthene and Paraffin Base Oils Fig. 31 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil Lubricant Influence on System Performance |
| 206 | Fig. 32 Viscosity of Mixtures of ISO 65 Paraffinic Base Oil and R-22 Fig. 33 Solubility of R-502 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil (CA 12%, CN 44%, CP 44%) Fig. 34 Viscosity/Temperature Curves for Solutions of R-11 in ISO 65 Naphthenic Base Oil Fig. 35 Solubility of R-11 in ISO 65 Oil Wax Separation (Floc Tests) |
| 207 | Fig. 36 Solubility of R-12 in Refrigerant Oils Fig. 37 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-12 in Naphthenic Base Oil Fig. 38 Critical Solution Temperatures of R-114/Oil Mixtures Fig. 39 Solubility of R-114 in HVI Oils |
| 208 | Fig. 40 Solubility of Refrigerants in ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 41 Viscosity of R-12/Oil Solutions at Low-Side Conditions Solubility of Hydrocarbon Gases Lubricants for Carbon Dioxide |
| 209 | Fig. 42 Viscosity of R-22/Naphthenic Oil Solutions at Low-Side Conditions Fig. 43 Viscosity of R-502/Naphthenic Oil Solutions at Low-Side Conditions Fig. 44 Viscosities of Solutions of R-502 with ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil (CA 12%, CN 44%, CP 44%) and Synthetic Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 45 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Solutions of R-502 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil |
| 210 | Fig. 46 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 47 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Solutions of R-502 in ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Oil |
| 211 | Fig. 48 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 32 Polypropylene Glycol Butyl Mono Ether with R-134a Fig. 49 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 80 Polyoxypropylene Diol with R-134a Fig. 50 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester with R-134a Fig. 51 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 100 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester with R-134a Fig. 52 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 53 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant |
| 212 | Fig. 54 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 55 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 56 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 57 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 58 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 59 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant |
| 213 | Fig. 60 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 61 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 62 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Tetrahydrofural Alcohol- Initiated, Methoxy-Terminated, Propylene Oxide Polyether Lubricant Fig. 63 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 64 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Solubility of Water in Lubricants |
| 214 | Fig. 65 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Tetrahydrofural Alcohol- Initiated, Methoxy-Terminated, Propylene Oxide Polyether Lubricant Fig. 66 Solubility of Propane in Oil Solubility of Air in Lubricants Foaming and Antifoam Agents |
| 215 | Fig. 67 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Propane and ISO 32 Mineral Oil Fig. 68 Miscibility Limits of ISO 220 Lubricants with Carbon Dioxide Fig. 69 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for CO2 and ISO 55 Polyol Ester Fig. 70 Density Chart for CO2 and ISO 55 Polyol Ester Oxidation Resistance |
| 216 | Fig. 71 Solubility of Ethylene in Oil Fig. 72 Solubility of Water in Mineral Oil Chemical Stability |
| 217 | Effect of Refrigerants and Lubricant Types Retrofitting from CFC/HCFC to Other Refrigerants Choice of Refrigerant Lubricants Flushing References |
| 221 | IP_R14_Ch13 Coolant Selection Load Versus Flow Rate Pumping Cost Performance Comparisons |
| 222 | Table 1 Secondary Coolant Performance Comparisons Table 2 Comparative Ranking of Heat Transfer Factors at 7 fps* Other Considerations Table 3 Relative Pumping Energy Required* Design Considerations Piping and Control Valves Storage Tanks |
| 223 | Fig. 1 Load Profile of Refrigeration Plant Where Secondary Coolant Storage Can Save Energy Fig. 2 Arrangement of System with Secondary Coolant Storage Expansion Tanks |
| 224 | Fig. 3 Typical Closed Salt Brine System Fig. 4 Brine Strengthening Unit for Salt Brines Used as Secondary Coolants Pulldown Time |
| 225 | System Costs Corrosion Prevention Applications |
| 226 | References |
| 227 | IP_R14_Ch14 Fig. 1 Sloped-Front Unit Cooler for Reach-In Cabinets Types of Forced-Circulation Air Coolers Fig. 2 Low-Air-Velocity Unit |
| 228 | Fig. 3 Low-Profile Cooler Fig. 4 Liquid Overfeed Unit Cooler Components Draw-Through and Blow-Through Airflow Fan Assemblies |
| 229 | Casing Coil Construction Frost Control Operational Controls Air Movement and Distribution |
| 230 | Unit Ratings Refrigerant Velocity Frost Condition Defrosting |
| 231 | Basic Cooling Capacity |
| 232 | Installation and Operation More Information References |
| 233 | IP_R14_Ch15 Fig. 1 Distribution of Stores in Retail Food Sector Fig. 2 Percentage of Electric Energy Consumption, by Use Category, of Typical Large Supermarket Fig. 3 Layout of Refrigerated Fixtures in Supermarket |
| 234 | Display Refrigerators Product Temperatures Fig. 4 Percentage Distribution of Display Refrigerators, by Type, in Typical Supermarket Fig. 5 Selected Temperatures in Open Vertical Meat Display Refrigerator |
| 235 | Table 1 Air Temperatures in Display Refrigerators Fig. 6 Product Temperature Profiles at Four Different Locations Inside Multideck Meat Refrigerator (Average Discharge Air Temperature of 29°F) Table 2 Average Store Conditions in United States Effect of Store Ambient Conditions |
| 236 | Fig. 7 Comparison of Maximum Product Temperature Variations Under Different Improper Product Loading Scenarios in Open Vertical Meat Display Refrigerator Fig. 8 Comparison of Collected Condensate vs. Relative Humidity for Open Vertical Meat, Open Vertical Dairy/Deli, Narrow Island Coffin, and Glass-Door Reach-In Display Refrigerators Fig. 9 Percentage of Latent Load to Total Cooling Load at Various Indoor Relative Humidities Table 3 Relative Refrigeration Requirements with Varying Store Ambient Conditions |
| 237 | Display Refrigerator Cooling Load |
| 238 | Fig. 10 Components of Refrigeration Load for Several Display Refrigerator Designs at 75°F db and 55% rh Fig. 11 Velocity Streamlines of Single-Band Air Curtain in Open Vertical Meat Display Refrigerator, Captured Using Digital Particle Image Velocimetry Technique Refrigerator Construction Cleaning and Sanitizing Equipment Merchandising Applications |
| 239 | Fig. 12 Multideck Dairy Display Refrigerator Fig. 13 Typical Walk-In Cooler Installation Fig. 14 Vertical Rear-Load Dairy (or Produce) Refrigerator with Roll-In Capability |
| 240 | Fig. 15 Single-Deck Meat Display Refrigerator Fig. 16 Multideck Meat Refrigerator Fig. 17 Closed-Service Display Refrigerator (Gravity Coil Model with Curved Front Glass) |
| 241 | Fig. 18 Multideck Produce Refrigerator Fig. 19 Single-Deck Tub-Type Frozen Food Refrigerator Fig. 20 Single-Deck Island Frozen Food Refrigerator Fig. 21 Multideck Frozen Food Refrigerator |
| 242 | Fig. 22 Glass-Door, Medium-Temperature and Frozen Food Reach-In Refrigerator Refrigerated Storage Rooms Meat Processing Rooms Wrapped Meat Storage Walk-In Coolers and Freezers |
| 243 | Refrigeration Systems Design Considerations |
| 244 | Typical Systems |
| 245 | Fig. 23 Stages with Mixed Compressors |
| 246 | Fig. 24 Typical Single-Stage Compressor Efficiency Fig. 25 Direct-Expansion System |
| 247 | Fig. 26 Secondary Coolant System For Single-Phase Fluids Fig. 27 CO2 Secondary Coolant System |
| 248 | Fig. 28 CO2 Direct Expansion |
| 249 | Condensing Methods Condenser Types Fig. 29 Typical Air-Cooled Machine Room Layout |
| 250 | Noise |
| 251 | Methods of Defrost Multicompressor Refrigeration Systems Secondary Refrigeration Systems Defrost Control Strategies |
| 252 | SustainabLe retail refrigeration Environmental Considerations Table 4 Carbon Dioxide Emission Factors for Electric Generation (lb CO2/kWh), 2006* |
| 253 | Minimizing Refrigerant Emissions Fig. 30 Average Annual Refrigerant Losses in Retail Refrigeration Systems Table 5 Attributes of Some Supermarket Refrigeration Systems |
| 254 | Fig. 31 Effects of Leak-Reduction Techniques Applied in the Factory Reducing Energy Consumption |
| 255 | Liquid Subcooling Strategies |
| 256 | Fig. 32 External Liquid-to-Suction Heat Exchanger Heat Reclaim Strategies Space Heating |
| 257 | Water Heating Fig. 1 Basic Parallel System with Remote Air-Cooled Condenser and Heat Recovery Fig. 33 Basic Series System with Remote Air-Cooled Condenser and Heat Recovery Supermarket Air-Conditioning Systems System Types Comfort Considerations |
| 258 | References Bibliography |
| 259 | IP_R14_Ch16 Refrigerated Cabinets Reach-In Cabinets Fig. 1 Reach-In Food Storage Cabinet Features Fig. 2 Pass-Through (Reach-Through) Refrigerator Roll-In Cabinets |
| 260 | Fig. 3 Open and Enclosed Roll-In Racks Fig. 4 Roll-In Cabinet, Usually Part of Food-Handling or Other Special-Purpose System Product Temperatures Typical Construction Specialty Applications |
| 261 | Refrigeration Systems Food Freezers Blast Chillers and Blast Freezers |
| 262 | Walk-In Coolers/Freezers Operating Temperatures Typical Construction Door Construction Walk-In Floors Refrigeration Systems Fig. 5 Refrigeration Equipment Added to Make a Walk-In Cooler Self Contained Compressors |
| 263 | Evaporators Refrigeration Sizing Maintenance and Operation Vending Machines Fig. 6 Estimated 1994 Breakdown of Beverage Vending Machines by Type Types of Refrigerated Vending Machines Refrigeration Systems Cooling Load Components |
| 264 | Fig. 7 Energy Use by Component For Typical Vending Machines Sensitivity to Surroundings Maintenance and Operation Ice Machines Typical Operation and Construction Refrigeration Systems |
| 265 | Maintenance and Operations Preparation Tables Fig. 8 Refrigerated Preparation Table Product Temperatures Typical Construction Energy Efficiency Opportunities |
| 266 | Table 1 Applicability of Energy-Efficiency Opportunities to Refrigeration Equipment References Bibliography |
| 267 | IP_R14_Ch17 Primary Functions Food Preservation Special-Purpose Compartments Fig. 1 Common Configurations of Contemporary Household Refrigerators and Freezers |
| 268 | Ice and Water Service Cabinets Use of Space Thermal Loads Insulation |
| 269 | Fig. 2 Cabinet Cross Section Showing Typical Contributions to Total Basic Heat Load Fig. 3 Example Cross Section of Vacuum-Insulated Panel Structure and Materials |
| 270 | Moisture Sealing Door Latching and Entrapment Cabinet Testing Refrigerating Systems |
| 271 | Refrigerating Circuit Fig. 4 Refrigeration Circuit Defrosting |
| 272 | Evaporator Fig. 5 Spine-Fin and Egg-Crate Evaporator Detail Condenser |
| 273 | Fans Capillary Tube Fig. 6 Typical Effect of Capillary Tube Selection on Unit Running Time Compressor |
| 274 | Fig. 7 Refrigerator Compressors Variable-Speed Compressors Linear Compressors Temperature Control System |
| 275 | System Design and Balance Processing and Assembly Procedures Performance and Evaluation Environmental Test Rooms Standard Performance Test Procedures |
| 276 | Table 1 Comparison of General Test Requirements for Various Test Methods |
| 277 | Special Performance Testing Materials Testing Component Life Testing |
| 278 | Field Testing Safety Requirements Durability and Service References Bibliography |
| 279 | IP_R14_Ch18 Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Technology Components and Terminology Fig. 1 Similarities Between Absorption and Vapor Compression Systems |
| 280 | Single-Effect Lithium Bromide Chillers Fig. 2 Two-Shell Lithium Bromide Cycle Water Chiller |
| 281 | Table 1 Characteristics of Typical Single-Effect, Indirect- Fired, Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller Single-Effect Heat Transformers Double-Effect Chillers |
| 282 | Fig. 3 Single-Effect Heat Transformer Table 2 Characteristics of Typical Double-Effect, Indirect- Fired, Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller |
| 283 | Fig. 4 Double-Effect Indirect-Fired Chiller Operation Table 3 Characteristics of Typical Double-Effect, Direct- Fired, Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller |
| 284 | Fig. 5 Double-Effect, Direct-Fired Chiller |
| 285 | Machine Setup and Maintenance Ammonia/Water Absorption Equipment Residential Chillers and Components Table 4 Physical Characteristics of Typical Ammonia/Water Absorption Chiller |
| 286 | Fig. 6 Ammonia/Water Direct-Fired Air-Cooled Chiller Fig. 7 Domestic Absorption Refrigeration Cycle Domestic Absorption Refrigerators and Controls |
| 287 | Industrial Absorption Refrigeration Units Special Applications and Emerging Products Systems Combining Power Production with Waste-Heat-Activated Absorption Cooling |
| 288 | Triple-Effect Cycles GAX (Generator-Absorber Heat Exchange) Cycle Solid-Vapor Sorption Systems Liquid Desiccant/Absorption Systems |
| 289 | Information Sources References Bibliography |
| 290 | IP_R14_Ch19 Thermal Properties of Food Constituents Thermal Properties of Foods Table 1 Thermal Property Models for Food Components (–40 £ t £ 300°F) |
| 291 | Table 2 Thermal Property Models for Water and Ice (– 40 £ t £ 300°F) Water Content Initial Freezing Point Ice Fraction |
| 292 | Table 3 Unfrozen Composition Data, Initial Freezing Point, and Specific Heats of Foods* |
| 295 | Density |
| 296 | Specific Heat Unfrozen Food Frozen Food |
| 297 | Enthalpy Unfrozen Food Frozen Foods |
| 298 | Thermal Conductivity |
| 299 | Table 4 Enthalpy of Frozen Foods |
| 301 | Table 5 Thermal Conductivity of Foods |
| 305 | Table 6 Thermal Conductivity of Freeze-Dried Foods |
| 306 | Thermal Diffusivity Heat of Respiration |
| 307 | Table 7 Thermal Diffusivity of Foods |
| 308 | Transpiration of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Table 8 Commodity Respiration Coefficients |
| 309 | Table 9 Heat of Respiration of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Held at Various Temperatures |
| 312 | Table 10 Change in Respiration Rates with Time |
| 313 | Table 11 Transpiration Coefficients of Certain Fruits and Vegetables Table 12 Commodity Skin Mass Transfer Coefficient |
| 314 | Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient Evaluation of Thermophysical Property Models Table 13 Surface Heat Transfer Coefficients for Food Products |
| 317 | Symbols References |
| 320 | Bibliography |
| 321 | IP_R14_Ch20 Thermodynamics of Cooling and Freezing Cooling Times of Foods and Beverages Cooling Time Estimation Methods Based on f and j Factors |
| 322 | Fig. 1 Typical Cooling Curve Fig. 2 Relationship Between f a /r 2 and Biot Number for Infinite Slab, Infinite Cylinder, and Sphere Fig. 3 Relationship Between jc Value for Thermal Center Temperature and Biot Number for Various Shapes Fig. 4 Relationship Between jm Value for Mass Average Temperature and Biot Number for Various Shapes Determination of f and j Factors for Slabs, Cylinders, and Spheres |
| 323 | Fig. 5 Relationship Between js Value for Surface Temperature and Biot Number for Various Shapes Table 1 Expressions for Estimating f and jc Factors for Thermal Center Temperature of Infinite Slabs Table 2 Expressions for Estimating f and jc Factors for Thermal Center Temperature of Infinite Cylinders Table 3 Expressions for Estimating f and jc Factors for Thermal Center Temperature of Spheres Determination of f and j Factors for Irregular Shapes |
| 324 | Fig. 6 Nomograph for Estimating Value of M12 from Recipro- cal of Biot Number and Smith’s (1966) Geometry Index Cooling Time Estimation Methods Based on Equivalent Heat Transfer Dimensionality |
| 325 | Algorithms for Estimating Cooling Time Table 4 Geometric Parameters Sample Problems for Estimating Cooling Time |
| 327 | Freezing Times of Foods and Beverages Plank’s Equation Modifications to Plank’s Equation |
| 328 | Precooling, Phase Change, and Subcooling Time Calculations |
| 329 | Table 5 Expressions for P and R Geometric Considerations |
| 330 | Table 6 Definition of Variables for Freezing Time Estimation Method Table 7 Geometric Constants |
| 331 | Table 8 Expressions for Equivalent Heat Transfer Dimensionality |
| 332 | Table 9 Summary of Methods for Determining Equivalent Heat Transfer Dimensionality Table 10 Estimation Methods of Freezing Time of Regularly and Irregularly Shaped Foods Evaluation of Freezing Time Estimation Methods Algorithms for Freezing Time Estimation |
| 333 | Sample Problems for Estimating Freezing Time |
| 334 | Symbols |
| 335 | References |
| 336 | Bibliography |
| 337 | IP_R14_Ch21 Refrigerated Storage Cooling Deterioration Desiccation |
| 338 | Table 1 Storage Requirements of Vegetables, Fresh Fruits, and Melons |
| 345 | Table 2 Storage Requirements of Other Perishable Products |
| 346 | Refrigerated Storage Plant Operation Checking Temperatures and Humidity Air Circulation Sanitation and Air Purification |
| 347 | Removal of Produce from Storage Storage of Frozen Foods Other Products Beer Canned Foods Dried Foods Table 3 Temperature and Time Requirements for Killing Moths in Stored Clothing Furs and Fabrics Honey |
| 348 | Maple Syrup Nursery Stock and Cut Flowers Table 4 Storage Conditions for Cut Flowers and Nursery Stock |
| 349 | Popcorn Vegetable Seeds References Bibliography |
| 350 | IP_R14_Ch22 Basic Microbiology Sources of Microorganisms Microbial Growth Fig. 1 Typical Microbial Growth Curve Fig. 1 Typical Microbial Growth Curve |
| 351 | Critical Microbial Growth Requirements Intrinsic Factors Table 1 Approximate Minimum Water Activity for Growth of Microorganisms Fig. 2 pH Ranges for Microbial Growth and Representative Examples Fig. 2 pH Ranges for Microbial Growth and Representative Examples Extrinsic Factors |
| 352 | Table 2 Minimum Growth Temperatures for Some Bacteria in Foods Biological Diversity Design for Control of Microorganisms Contamination Prevention |
| 353 | Growth Prevention Destruction of Organisms Role of HACCP Sanitation Table 3 Common Cleaning and Sanitizing Chemicals |
| 354 | Regulations and Standards Bibliography |
| 355 | IP_R14_Ch23 Initial Building Considerations Location Configuration and Size Determination |
| 356 | Stacking Arrangement Building Design One-Story Configuration Fig. 1 Typical Plan for One-Story Refrigerated Facility |
| 357 | Shipping and Receiving Docks Utility Space Specialized Storage Facilities Controlled-Atmosphere Storage Rooms |
| 358 | Automated Warehouses Refrigerated Rooms Construction Methods Fig. 2 Total Exterior Vapor Retarder/Insulation System Fig. 3 Entirely Interior Vapor Retarder/Insulation System |
| 359 | Fig. 4 Interior/Exterior Vapor Retarder/Insulation System Fig. 5 Separate Exterior Vapor Retarder Systems for Each Area of Significantly Different Temperature Space Adjacent to Envelope Air/Vapor Treatment at Junctions Floor Construction |
| 360 | Surface Preparation Finishes Suspended Ceilings and Other Interstitial Spaces Floor Drains Electrical Wiring Tracking Cold-Storage Doors Hardware |
| 361 | Refrigerated Docks Schneider System Refrigeration Systems Types of Refrigeration Systems Choice of Refrigerant |
| 362 | Load Determination Table 1 Refrigeration Design Load Factors for Typical 100,000 ft2 Single-Floor Freezer* Unit Cooler Selection |
| 363 | Fig. 6 Typical Fan-Coil Unit Configurations for Refrigerated Facilities |
| 364 | Fig. 7 Penthouse Cooling Units Freezers Fig. 8 Typical Blast Freezer |
| 365 | Controls |
| 366 | Insulation Techniques Vapor Retarder System Types of Insulation |
| 367 | Table 2 Recommended Insulation R-Values Insulation Thickness Applying Insulation Roofs Walls Floors |
| 368 | Fig. 9 Typical One-Story Construction with Underfloor Warming Pipes Freezer Doorways Doors |
| 369 | Other Considerations Temperature Pulldown Material-Handling Equipment Fire Protection |
| 370 | Inspection and Maintenance References Bibliography |
| 371 | IP_R14_Ch24 Transmission Load Table 1 Thermal Conductivity of Cold Storage Insulation Table 2 Minimum Insulation Thickness |
| 372 | Table 3 Allowance for Sun Effect Heat Gain from Cooler Floors Table 4 Example Input Data Required to Estimate Cooler Floor Heat Gain Table 5 Typical Annual and Annual Amplitude Outdoor Temperatures for Warm and Cold Climates Fig. 1 Variation of Cooler Floor Heat Gain over One Year for Conditions in Table 4 |
| 373 | Fig. 2 Variation of qmax /A with A/P Using Conditions from Tables 4 and 5 Product Load Internal Load |
| 374 | Table 6 Heat Gain from Typical Electric Motors Table 7 Heat Equivalent of Occupancy Packaging Related Load Table 8 Typical Specific Heat Capacities of Common Packaging Materials Fig. 3 Moisture Sorption Isotherms for Wood as Function of Air Temperature and Relative Humidity |
| 375 | Fig. 4 Moisture Sorption Isotherms for Cardboard as Function of Air Temperature and Relative Humidity Fig. 5 Fractional Unaccomplished Moisture Change as Function of Time and Temperature for Sheets of Cardboard, Unwaxed Cartons, and Waxed Cartons Fig. 6 Fractional Unaccomplished Moisture Change as Function of Time and Temperature for Wooden Pallet Bases, Unwrapped Pallets of Cartons, and Wrapped Pallets of Cartons Infiltration Air Load Infiltration by Air Exchange Fig. 7 Flowing Cold and Warm Air Masses for Typical Open Freezer Doors |
| 376 | Fig. 8 Psychrometric Depiction of Air Exchange for Typical Freezer Doorway Fig. 9 Sensible Heat Gain by Air Exchange for Continuously Open Door with Fully Established Flow Table 9 Sensible Heat Ratio Rs for Infiltration from Outdoors to Refrigerated Spaces |
| 377 | Table 10 Sensible Heat Ratio Rs for Infiltration from Warmer to Colder Refrigerated Spaces Infiltration by Direct Flow Through Doorways Sensible and Latent Heat Components Equipment-Related Load |
| 378 | Safety Factor |
| 379 | Total Facility Load Calculation Example Facility Description |
| 380 | Fig. 10 Facility Diagram for Floor Plan and Cross Sections A-A and B-B |
| 383 | Load Diversity |
| 384 | Symbols References Bibliography |
| 385 | IP_R14_Ch25 Vehicles Fig. 1 Refrigerated Cargo Container Vehicle Design Considerations Insulation and Vapor Barrier |
| 386 | Fig. 2 Mechanical Railway Refrigerator Car |
| 387 | Fig. 3 Heat Load from Air Leakage Air Circulation Fig. 4 Air Delivery Systems (A) Top and (B) Bottom Equipment Attachment Provisions Sanitation Equipment Cargo Container and Rail Car Systems |
| 388 | Fig. 5 Container Refrigeration Unit Self-Powered Truck and Trailer Systems Vehicle-Powered Systems |
| 389 | Fig. 6 Trailer Unit Installation Fig. 7 Small Truck Refrigeration System (Engine-Driven Generator) Fig. 8 Small Truck Refrigeration System (Electric-Engine-Driven Generator) Multitemperature Systems |
| 390 | Fig. 9 Multitemperature Refrigeration System Fig. 10 Examples of Common Multitemperature Configurations Storage Effect Cooling Heating Only Ventilation Controlled and Modified Atmosphere Control Systems |
| 391 | Equipment Design and Selection Factors Time Shock and Vibration Table 1 Typical Peak Shock Levels Ambient Temperature Extremes |
| 392 | Table 2 Ambient Temperatures for Equipment Design in Several Geographical Regions Other Ambient Design Factors Operating Efficiency Guidelines Airborne Sound Safety |
| 393 | Qualification Testing System Application Factors |
| 394 | Load Calculations Equipment Selection |
| 395 | Owning and Operating Costs Operations Commodity Precooling Vehicle Use Practices Temperature Settings |
| 396 | Other Cargo Space Considerations Maintenance |
| 397 | References Bibliography |
| 398 | IP_R14_Ch26 Refrigeration Load Refrigeration System Refrigerants Table 1 Operating and Reserve Capacities of Condensing Units Compressors Condensers and Coolers |
| 399 | Receivers and Refrigerant Distribution Controls Thermometers, Thermostats, and Temperature Sensors Cargo Holds Arrangement Space Cooling Insulation and Construction |
| 400 | Applying Insulation |
| 401 | Decks and Doors Fig. 1 Floor Drain Fitting Ships’ Refrigerated Stores Commodities Meats and Poultry Fish, Ice Cream, and Bread |
| 402 | Table 2 Classifications for Ships’ Refrigeration Services Fruits and Vegetables Dairy Products, Ice, and Drinking Water Storage Areas Storage Space Requirements Stores’ Arrangement and Location |
| 403 | Ship Refrigerated Room Design Refrigerated Room Construction Specific Vessels Cargo Vessels Specifications |
| 404 | Calculations Fishing Vessels Refrigeration System Design Hold Preparation Refrigeration with Ice |
| 405 | Fig. 2 Typical Layout of Pens in Hold Refrigeration with Seawater Fig. 3 Typical Underdeck Freezer Plate Installation Process Freezing and Cold Storage Fig. 4 Typical Marine Freezing Cell |
| 406 | References Bibliography |
| 407 | IP_R14_Ch27 Fig. 1 Flexible Passenger/Cargo Mix Fig. 2 Payload/Range Comparison for Wide-Body Jet Perishable Air Cargo Fruits and Vegetables |
| 408 | Seafood Animals Perishable Commodity Requirements Fig. 3 Temperature of Strawberries Shipped by Air and Rail Design Considerations |
| 409 | Shipping Containers Fig. 4 Insulated Containers Designed to Fit Configuration of Cargo Aircraft Transit Refrigeration |
| 410 | Ground Handling Fig. 5 Typical Ground Service Equipment Arrangement |
| 411 | Galley Refrigeration Fig. 6 Heat Transfer Diagram of Aircraft Galley Refrigeration Equipment |
| 412 | Air Chiller Fig. 7 Air Chiller Fig. 8 Aircraft Galley Cooling System with Air-Through Cart |
| 413 | Fig. 9 Aircraft Galley Cooling System with Air-Over Cart Fig. 10 Galley Air-Draw-Through Cooling System Liquid Chilling System Fig. 11 Liquid Chiller Fig. 12 Recirculation Unit |
| 414 | Fig. 13 Galley Air Cooler for Air-Through Cart Fig. 14 Galley Air Cooler for Air-Over Cart Galley Refrigeration Inserts Thermal Considerations |
| 415 | Fig. 15 Schematic of Aircraft Liquid Cooling System Fig. 16 Galley Refrigeration Insert (Refrigerator, Beverage Chiller, and Freezer) Table 1 Performance Requirements of Galley Systems Table 2 Temperature and Pulldown Requirements of Galley Refrigeration Inserts |
| 416 | References Bibliography |
| 417 | IP_R14_Ch28 Product Requirements Calculation Methods Heat Load |
| 418 | Precooling Time Estimation Methods Fractional Unaccomplished Temperature Difference Fig. 1 Typical Cooling Curve Half-Cooling Time Fig. 2 General Nomograph to Determine Half-Cooling Periods |
| 419 | Table 1 Half-Cooling Times for Hydrocooling of Various Commodities Cooling Coefficient Other Semianalytical/Empirical Precooling Time Estimation Methods Numerical Techniques Cooling Methods Hydrocooling |
| 420 | Table 2 Lag Factors, Cooling Coefficients, and Half-Cooling Times for Hydrocooling Various Fruits and Vegetables Types of Hydrocoolers Fig. 3 Schematic of Shower Hydrocooler |
| 421 | Table 3 Cooling Coefficients and Half-Cooling Times for Hydraircooling Sweet Corn and Celery Table 4 Cooling Coefficients for Hydrocooling Peaches Fig. 4 Schematic of Immersion Hydrocooler Variations on Hydrocooling |
| 422 | Hydrocooler Efficiency Hydrocooling Water Treatment Forced-Air Cooling |
| 423 | Commercial Methods Fig. 5 Serpentine Forced-Air Cooler Effects of Containers and Stacking Patterns Moisture Loss in Forced-Air Cooling |
| 424 | Fig. 6 Engineering-Economic Model Output for Forced-Air Cooler Computer Solution Forced-Air Evaporative Cooling Package Icing |
| 425 | Vacuum Cooling Pressure, Volume, and Temperature Fig. 7 Pressure, Volume, and Temperature in Vacuum Cooler Cooling Product from 90 to 32°F |
| 426 | Commercial Systems Fig. 8 Schematic Cross Sections of Vacuum-Producing Mechanisms Applications |
| 427 | Fig. 9 Comparative Cooling of Vegetables Under Similar Vacuum Conditions Table 5 Cooling Methods Suggested for Horticultural Commodities Selecting a Cooling Method Cooling Cut Flowers |
| 428 | Symbols References |
| 429 | Bibliography |
| 430 | IP_R14_Ch29 Fig. 1 Typical Freezing Curve Freezing Methods Blast Freezers |
| 431 | Cold Storage Rooms Stationary Blast Cell Freezing Tunnels Fig. 2 Stationary Blast Cell Push-Through Trolley Freezers Fig. 3 Push-Through Trolley Freezer Straight Belt Freezers Fig. 4 Two-Stage Belt Freezer Multipass Straight Belt Freezers |
| 432 | Fig. 5 Multipass, Straight Belt Freezer Fluidized Bed Freezers Fig. 6 Fluidized Bed Freezer Fluidized Belt Freezers Fig. 7 Horizontal Airflow Spiral Freezer Spiral Belt Freezers |
| 433 | Fig. 8 Vertical Airflow Spiral Freezer Fig. 9 Split Airflow Spiral Freezer Impingement Freezers Carton Freezers Fig. 10 Impingement Freezer Fig. 11 Carton (Carrier) Freezer Contact Freezers |
| 434 | Fig. 12 Plate Freezer Manual and Automatic Plate Freezers Specialized Contact Freezers Cryogenic Freezers Liquid Nitrogen Freezers Carbon Dioxide Freezers Cryomechanical Freezers Other Freezer Selection Criteria Reliability |
| 435 | Hygiene Quality Economics Table 1 Moisture-Carrying Capacity of Air (Saturated) |
| 436 | Refrigeration Systems Operation Maintenance Bibliography |
| 438 | IP_R14_Ch30 Fig. 1 Steps of Meat Processing Sanitation Role of HACCP |
| 439 | Carcass Chilling and Holding Spray Chilling Beef Chilling Time Refrigeration Systems for Coolers |
| 440 | Beef Cooler Layout and Capacity |
| 441 | Fig. 2 Deep Round Temperature Measurement in Beef Carcass Fig. 3 Beef Carcass Chill Curves |
| 442 | Fig. 4 Beef Carcass Shrinkage Rate Curves Table 1 Weight Changes in Beef Carcass |
| 443 | Table 2 Load Calculations for Beef Chilling Table 3 Load Calculations for Beef Holding |
| 444 | Table 4 Sample Evaporator Installations for Beef Chillinga Boxed Beef Hog Chilling and Tempering |
| 445 | Fig. 5 Freezing Times of Boneless Meat Fig. 6 Blast Freezer Loads |
| 446 | Fig. 7 Composite Hog Chilling Time/Temperature Curves Table 5 Product Refrigeration Load, Tons Table 6 Average Chill Cooler Loads Exclusive of Product |
| 447 | Pork Trimmings Fresh Pork Holding Calf and Lamb Chilling |
| 448 | Chilling and Freezing Variety Meats Table 7 Storage Life of Meat Products Packaging and Storage Packaged Fresh Cuts |
| 449 | Refrigeration Load Computations Processed Meats Table 8 Room Temperatures and Relative Humidities for Smoking Meats |
| 450 | Bacon Slicing and Packaging Room Sausage Dry Rooms |
| 452 | Lard Chilling Blast and Storage Freezers |
| 453 | Direct-Contact Meat Chilling Frozen Meat Products Freezing Quality of Meat Effect of Freezing on Quality Storage and Handling |
| 454 | Packaging Shipping Docks Energy Conservation |
| 455 | References Bibliography |
| 456 | IP_R14_Ch31 Processing Chilling Fig. 1 Processing Sequence of Fresh Poultry |
| 457 | Fig. 2 Typical Equipment Layout for Live Bird Receiving, Slaughtering, and Defeathering Areas |
| 458 | Fig. 3 Typical Equipment Layout for Eviscerating, Chilling, and Packaging Areas |
| 459 | Fig. 4 Space-Relationship-Flow Diagram for Poultry Processing Plant Fig. 5 Broiler and Coolant Temperatures in Countercurrent Immersion Chiller Fig. 6 One-Tier Evaporative Air Chiller Decontamination of Carcasses Further Processing |
| 460 | Unit Operations Freezing Effect on Product Quality |
| 461 | Fig. 7 Meat Products Processing Flow Chart Fig. 8 Heat Processing of Meat Products by Batch Smoker/Cooker Freezing Methods |
| 462 | Fig. 9 Heat Processing of Meat Products by Continuous Smoker/Cooker Fig. 10 Relation Between Freezing Time and Air Velocity Fig. 11 Temperature During Freezing of Packaged, Ready-to-Cook Turkeys Predicting Freezing or Thawing Times Packaging |
| 463 | Fig. 12 Temperature During Freezing of Packaged, Ready-to-Cook Turkeys Fig. 13 Temperatures at Various Depths in Breast of 15 lb Turkeys During Immersion Freezing at –20°F Table 1 Thermal Properties of Ready-to-Cook Poultry Airflow Systems in Poultry Processing Plants Fig. 14 Air Movement Pattern in Positively Pressurized Poultry Processing Plant |
| 464 | Airflow System Consideration During Renovation Plant Sanitation HACCP Systems in Poultry Processing Tenderness Control |
| 465 | Distribution and Retail Holding Refrigeration Preserving Quality in Storage and Marketing |
| 466 | Thawing References |
| 467 | Bibliography |
| 468 | IP_R14_Ch32 Fresh Fishery Products Care Aboard Vessels Icing |
| 469 | Fig. 1 Cooling Rate of Properly and Improperly Iced Haddock Saltwater Icing Use of Preservatives Storage of Fish in Refrigerated Seawater Boxing at Sea Shore Plant Procedure and Marketing |
| 470 | Table 1 Organoleptic Quality Criteria for Fish Packaging Fresh Fish Fresh Fish Storage |
| 471 | Table 2 Optimal Radiation Dose Levels and Shelf Life at 33°F for Some Species of Fish and Shellfish Irradiation of Fresh Seafood Modified-Atmosphere (MA) Packaging Frozen Fishery Products Packaging Package Considerations in Freezing |
| 472 | Package Considerations for Frozen Storage Types of Packages Freezing Methods Blast Freezing |
| 473 | Fig. 2 Freezing Time of Fish Fillets and Fish Sticks in Tunnel Blast Freezer Plate Freezing Fig. 3 Freezing Time of Fish Fillets and Fish Sticks in Plate Freezer Immersion Freezing |
| 474 | Fig. 4 Freezing Time for Tuna Immersed in Brine Freezing Fish at Sea Storage of Frozen Fish Composition |
| 475 | Table 3 Relative Susceptibility of Representative Species of Fish to Oxidative Changes in Frozen Storage Storage Conditions Table 4 Effect of Storage Temperature on Shelf Life of Frozen Fishery Products Packaging and Glazing Space Requirements |
| 476 | Table 5 Storage Conditions and Storage Life of Frozen Fish Table 6 Space Requirements for Frozen Fishery Products Transportation and Marketing Bibliography |
| 478 | IP_R14_Ch33 Milk Production and Processing Handling Milk at the Dairy Receiving and Storing Milk |
| 479 | Separation and Clarification Table 1 U.S. Requirements for Milkfat and Nonfat Solids in Milks and Creams Pasteurization and Homogenization |
| 480 | Fig. 1 Flow Diagram of Plate HTST Pasteurizer with Vacuum Chamber |
| 481 | Packaging Milk Products Equipment Cleaning Milk Storage and Distribution |
| 482 | Half-and-Half and Cream Buttermilk, Sour Cream, and Yogurt Refrigeration |
| 483 | Butter Manufacture Separation and Pasteurization Churning |
| 484 | Fig. 2 Thermal Behavior of Cream Heated to 167°F Followed by Rapid Cooling to 86°F and to 50.7°F; Comparison with Cream Heated to 122°F, then Rapid Cooling to 88.5°F and to 53.6°F Table 2 Heat Liberated from Fat in Cream Cooled Rapidly from about 86°F to Various Temperatures Fig. 3 Heat Liberated from Fat in Cream Cooled Rapidly from Approximately 86°F to Various Temperatures |
| 485 | Continuous Churning Fig. 4 Flow Diagram of Continuous Butter Manufacture Packaging Butter Deterioration of Butter in Storage Table 3 Specific Heats of Milk and Milk Derivatives, Btu/lb · °F |
| 486 | Total Refrigeration Load Fig. 5 Butter Flow Diagram Whipped Butter |
| 487 | Cheese Manufacture Cheddar Cheese |
| 488 | Fig. 6 Cheese Shrinkage in Storage Provolone and Mozzarella (Pasta Filata Types) Swiss Cheese Roquefort and Blue Cheese Table 4 Swiss Cheese Manufacturing Conditions |
| 489 | Cottage Cheese Table 5 Typical Blue Cheese Manufacturing Conditions Other Cheeses |
| 490 | Table 6 Curing Temperature, Humidity, and Time of Some Cheese Varieties Table 7 Temperature Range of Storage for Common Types of Cheese Refrigerating Cheese Rooms Frozen Dairy Desserts |
| 491 | Ice Cream Ice Milk Soft Ice Milk or Ice Cream Frozen Yogurt Sherbets |
| 492 | Ices Making Ice Cream Mix Freezing |
| 493 | Table 8 Freezing Points of Typical Ice Creams, Sherbet, and Ice Table 9 Freezing Behavior of Typical Ice Cream* |
| 495 | Table 10 Continuous Freezing Loads for Typical Ice Cream Mix Table 11 Hardening Loads for Typical Ice Cream Mix Ice Cream Bars and Other Novelties |
| 496 | Refrigeration Compressor Equipment Selection and Operation Ultrahigh-Temperature (UHT) Sterilization and Aseptic Packaging (AP) Sterilization Methods and Equipment |
| 497 | Aseptic Packaging |
| 498 | Quality Control Heat-Labile Nutrients |
| 499 | Evaporated, Sweetened Condensed, and Dry Milk Evaporated Milk Sweetened Condensed Milk Table 12 Inversion Times for Cases of Evaporated Milk in Storage Table 13 Typical Steam Requirements for Evaporating Water from Milk Dry Milk and Nonfat Dry Milk |
| 500 | Drum Drying |
| 501 | References Bibliography |
| 502 | IP_R14_Ch34 Shell Eggs Egg Structure and Composition Physical Structure Fig. 1 Structure of an Egg Table 1 Physical Properties of Chicken Eggs |
| 503 | Table 2 Composition of Whole Egg Chemical Composition Nutritive Value Table 3 U.S. Standards for Quality of Shell Eggs Egg Quality and Safety Quality Grades and Weight Classes |
| 504 | Table 4 U.S. Egg Weight Classes for Consumer Grades Quality Factors |
| 505 | Control and Preservation of Quality Egg Spoilage and Safety In-Shell Egg Pasteurization |
| 506 | HACCP Plan for Shell Eggs Shell Egg Processing Off-Line and In-Line Processing Fig. 2 Unit Operations in Off-Line and In-Line Egg Packaging Effect of Refrigeration on Egg Quality and Safety |
| 507 | Fig. 3 Off-Line Egg Processing Operation Refrigeration Requirement Issues Condensation on Eggs Initial Egg Temperatures |
| 508 | Fig. 4 Typical In-Line Processing Operation Fig. 5 Material Flow in Off-Line Operation |
| 509 | Table 5 Ambient Conditions When Moisture Condenses on Cold Eggs Egg Temperatures After Processing Cooling Rates Cooling for Storage Accelerated Cooling Methods Packaging Transportation |
| 510 | Egg Products Egg Breaking Holding Temperatures Pasteurization |
| 511 | Table 6 Minimum Cooling and Temperature Requirements for Liquid Egg Products Fig. 6 Floor Plan and Material Flow in Large Egg-Breaking Plant Yields Refrigerated Liquid Egg Products |
| 512 | Table 7 Pasteurization Requirements of Various Egg Products Table 8 Minimum Pasteurization Requirements in Various Countries Fig. 7 Effect of pH on Pasteurization Temperature of Egg White Fig. 8 Thermal Destruction Curves of Several Egg Products Table 9 Liquid and Solid Yields From Shell Eggs Chilled Egg Products |
| 513 | Frozen Egg Products Fig. 9 Steps in Egg Product Drying Dehydrated Egg Products |
| 514 | Egg Product Quality Sanitary Standards and Plant Sanitation HACCP Program for Egg Products References |
| 515 | Bibliography |
| 516 | IP_R14_Ch35 Fruit Storage and Handling Considerations Quality and Maturity Handling and Harvesting Storage and Transportation Apples |
| 517 | Controlled-Atmosphere Storage Table 1 Summary of Controlled Atmosphere Requirements and Recommendations for Fruits Other Than Apples and Pears |
| 518 | Storage Diseases and Deterioration Table 2 Optimum Levels for Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Apples |
| 521 | Pears |
| 522 | Table 3 Commercial Controlled Atmosphere Conditions for Pear Varietiesa Controlled-Atmosphere Storage Storage Diseases and Deterioration |
| 523 | Grapes Cooling and Storage Fumigation |
| 525 | Table 4 Factors for Determining Amount of SO2 Needed for Forced-Air Fumigation Using Total Utilization System Table 5 Factors for Determining Amount of SO2 Needed for Storage Room Fumigation |
| 526 | Diseases Storage Life Table 6 Storage Life of California Table Grapes at 32°F Table 7 Storage Life of Labrusca Grapes at 32°F Refrigeration System Materials and Practices Maintenance and Operation Plums |
| 527 | Storage Diseases and Deterioration Sweet Cherries Harvesting Techniques Cooling Storage Diseases Peaches and Nectarines Storage Varieties Harvest Techniques Cooling Storage |
| 528 | Diseases Apricots Diseases and Deterioration Berries Diseases Strawberries Diseases Figs Diseases |
| 529 | Supplements to Refrigeration Antiseptic Washes Protective Packaging Selective Marketing Heat Treatment Fungicides Irradiation References Bibliography |
| 530 | IP_R14_Ch36 Citrus Fruit Maturity and Quality Harvesting and Packing Picking Fig. 1 Approximate Commercial Shipping Season for U.S. Citrus |
| 531 | Handling Accelerated Coloring or Sweating Color-Added Treatment Cooling |
| 532 | Transportation Storage Oranges Table 1 Quarantine Treatment of Citrus Fruit for Caribbean Fruit Fly Table 2 Heat of Respiration of Citrus Fruit Grapefruit Lemons |
| 533 | Specialty Citrus Fruit Controlled-Atmosphere Storage Storage Disorders and Control Postharvest Diseases Physiological Disturbances |
| 534 | Bananas Harvesting and Transportation Diseases and Deterioration Exposure to Excessive Temperatures Wholesale Processing Facilities Fig. 2 Banana Room (Side View) |
| 535 | Airtightness Refrigeration Fig. 3 Three-Tier Forklift Banana Room (End View) Refrigeration Load Calculations Heating Air Circulation Table 3 Fruit Temperatures for Banana Ripening |
| 536 | Airflow Requirements Humidity Controls Fig. 4 Heat of Respiration During Banana Ripening |
| 537 | Subtropical Fruit Avocados Storage Disorders Mangoes Storage Disorders Pineapples Storage Disorders References Bibliography |
| 538 | IP_R14_Ch37 Product Selection and Quality Maintenance Postharvest Handling |
| 539 | Cooling Protective Packaging and Waxing In-Transit Preservation Cooling Vehicle and Product Packaging, Loading, and Handling Providing Refrigeration and Air Circulation |
| 540 | Table 1 Optimal Transit Temperatures for Various Vegetables Protection from Cold Checking and Cleaning Equipment Modified Atmospheres in Transit Preservation in Destination Facilities |
| 541 | Refrigerated Storage Considerations Sprout Inhibitors Controlled- and Modified-Atmosphere Storage Injury |
| 542 | Table 2 Compatible Produce for Long-Distance Transport |
| 543 | Table 3 Compatible Fresh Fruits and Vegetables During 7 Day Storage Wholesale and Retail Handling Operations Storage of Various Vegetables Artichokes, Globe (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Asparagus (32 to 36°F and 95 to 100% rh) |
| 544 | Table 4 Vegetables Susceptible to Chilling Injury at Moderately Low but Nonfreezing Temperatures Table 5 Notes on Diseases of General Occurrence Beans, Green or Snap (40 to 45°F and 95% rh) |
| 545 | Beans, Lima (37 to 41°F and 95% rh) Beets (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Broccoli (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Brussels Sprouts (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Cabbage (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Carrots (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) |
| 546 | Cauliflower (32°F and 95% rh) Celery (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Corn, Sweet (32°F and 95 to 98% rh) Cucumbers (50 to 55°F and 95% rh) |
| 547 | Eggplants (46 to 54°F and 90 to 95% rh) Endive and Escarole (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Garlic, Dry (32°F and 65 to 70% rh) Greens, Leafy (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Lettuce (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Melons |
| 548 | Mushrooms (32°F and 95% rh) Okra (45 to 50°F and 90 to 95% rh) Onions (32°F and 65 to 70% rh) |
| 549 | Parsley (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Parsnips (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Peas, Green (32°F and 95 to 98% rh) Peas, Southern (40 to 41°F and 95% rh) Peppers, Dry Chili or Hot Peppers, Sweet (45 to 55°F and 90 to 95% rh) Potatoes (Temperature, see following; 90 to 95% rh) |
| 551 | Pumpkins and Squash Radishes (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Rhubarb (32°F and 95% rh) Rutabagas (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Spinach (32°F and 95 to 98% rh) Sweet Potatoes (55 to 60°F, 85 to 90% rh) |
| 552 | Tomatoes (Mature Green, 55 to 70°F; Ripe, 50°F; 90 to 95% rh) Turnips (32°F and 95% rh) References |
| 553 | Bibliography |
| 554 | IP_R14_Ch38 Orange Juice Orange Concentrate Selecting, Handling, and Processing Fresh Fruit |
| 555 | Fig. 1 Citrus Processing Schematic |
| 556 | Cold Storage Concentration Methods Thermally Accelerated Short-Time Evaporator (TASTE) Fig. 2 Thermally Accelerated Short-Time Evaporator (TASTE) Schematic |
| 557 | Freeze Concentration Quality Control Chilled Juice |
| 558 | Refrigeration Refrigeration Equipment Refrigeration Loads Compressor Manifolding Pure Fruit Juice Powders |
| 559 | Other Citrus Juices Grapefruit Juice Blended Grapefruit and Orange Juice Tangerine Juice Noncitrus Juices Pineapple Juice Apple Juice |
| 560 | Grape Juice Concord Grapes Muscadines Strawberry and Other Berry Juices |
| 562 | IP_R14_Ch39 Breweries Malting Process Aspects |
| 563 | Fig. 1 Brewery Flow Diagram Table 1 Total Solids in Wort |
| 564 | Processing Wort Cooling |
| 565 | Fermenting Cellar Fermenting Cellar Refrigeration Fig. 2 Solids Conversion Rate |
| 566 | Stock Cellar Fig. 3 Continuous Aging Gravity Flow Kraeusen Cellar Finishing Operations |
| 567 | Outdoor Storage Tanks Hop Storage Yeast Culture Room Pasteurization Carbon Dioxide Collection |
| 568 | Liquefaction Fig. 4 Typical Arrangement of CO2 Collecting System CO2 Storage and Reevaporation Heat Balance |
| 569 | Common Refrigeration Systems Vinegar Production Wine Making |
| 570 | Must Cooling Heat Treatment of Red Musts Juice Cooling Heat Treatment of Juices Fermentation Temperature Control |
| 571 | Potassium Bitartrate Crystallization Storage Temperature Control Chill-Proofing Brandies Carbonated Beverages Beverage and Water Coolers |
| 572 | Table 2 Volume of CO2 Gas Absorbed in One Volume of Water Refrigeration Plant Refrigeration Load Size of Plant |
| 573 | Liquid Carbon Dioxide Storage References Bibliography |
| 574 | IP_R14_Ch40 Main Dishes, Meals General Plant Characteristics Preparation, Processing, Unit Operations |
| 575 | Assembly, Filling, and Packaging Cooling, Freezing, Casing |
| 576 | Finished Goods Storage and Shipping Refrigeration Loads Refrigeration Systems Plant Internal Environment Vegetables |
| 577 | International Production Vegetables in Other Prepared Foods Refrigeration Loads and Systems |
| 578 | Fruits Refrigeration Loads and Systems Potato Products French Fries |
| 579 | Formed Potato Products Hash Brown Potatoes Refrigeration Loads and Systems |
| 580 | Other Prepared Foods Long-Term Storage Bibliography |
| 581 | IP_R14_Ch41 Ingredient Storage |
| 582 | Mixing Mixers Dough Systems |
| 583 | Table 1 Size of Condensing Units for Various Mixers Dough Cooling Fermentation Bread Makeup |
| 584 | Final Proof Baking Bread Cooling |
| 585 | Fig. 1 Moisture Loss and Air Temperature Rise in Counterflow Bread-Cooling Tunnel Slicing and Wrapping Bread Freezing |
| 586 | Fig. 2 Core and Crust Temperatures in Freezing Bread Table 2 Important Heat Data for Baking Applications Freezing Other Bakery Products Frozen Pre-Proofed Bakery Products |
| 587 | Retarding Doughs and Batters Choice of Refrigerants References Bibliography |
| 588 | IP_R14_Ch42 Candy Manufacture Milk and Dark Chocolate Table 1 Optimum Design Air Conditionsa |
| 589 | Hand Dipping and Enrobing Bar Candy |
| 590 | Hard Candy Hot Rooms Cold Rooms |
| 591 | Cooling Tunnels Coating Kettles or Pans Packing Rooms |
| 592 | Refrigeration Plant Storage Candy Table 2 Expected Storage Life for Candy Color |
| 593 | Flavor Texture Insects Storage Temperature |
| 594 | Humidity Requirements Nuts Temperature Relative Humidity Atmosphere Packaging Dried Fruits and Vegetables |
| 595 | Dried Fruit Storage Dried Vegetable Storage Controlled Atmosphere |
| 596 | IP_R14_Ch43 Ice Makers Flake Ice Fig. 1 Flake Ice Maker Fig. 2 Disk Flake Ice Maker Tubular Ice |
| 597 | Fig. 3 Tubular Ice Maker Plate Ice |
| 598 | Fig. 4 Plate Ice Maker Ice Builders Scale Formation Thermal Storage Ice Storage |
| 599 | Ice Rake and Live Bottom Bins Fig. 5 Ice Rake System |
| 600 | Delivery Systems Screw and Belt Conveyors Pneumatic Ice Conveying Fig. 6 Typical Flake Ice Pneumatic Conveying System |
| 601 | Slurry Pumping Commercial Ice Ice-Source Heat Pumps Bibliography |
| 602 | IP_R14_Ch44 Applications Refrigeration Requirements |
| 603 | Table 1 Range of Refrigeration Capacities for Ice Rinks Heat Loads |
| 604 | Table 2 Daily Ice Rink Refrigeration Loads, Indoor Rinks Table 3 Ice Rink Heat Loads, Outdoor Rinks |
| 605 | Fig. 1 Angle Factor for Radiation Between Parallel Rectangles Fci Ice Rink Conditions |
| 606 | Equipment Selection Compressors Evaporators Condensers and Heat Recovery |
| 607 | Fig. 2 Example of Heat Recovery Piping Ice Temperature Control Rink Piping and Pipe Supports |
| 608 | Headers and Expansion Tanks Fig. 3 Reverse-Return System of Distribution Fig. 4 Two-Pipe Header and Distribution Coolant Equipment Ice Removal Storage Accumulators |
| 609 | Energy Consumption Dehumidifiers Rink Floor Design Drainage |
| 610 | Fig. 5 Ice Rink Floors Subfloor Heating for Freeze Protection Preparation of Rink Floor Permanent General-Purpose Rink Floor |
| 611 | All-Purpose Floors Header Trench Snow-Melting Pit Fig. 6 Snow Melt Pit |
| 612 | Building, Maintaining, and Planing Ice Surfaces Pebbling Water Quality Imitation Ice-Skating Surfaces References Bibliography |
| 614 | IP_R14_Ch45 Concrete Dams Methods of Temperature Control Cement Selection and Pozzolanic Admixtures Cooling with Embedded Coils Fig. 1 Flow Diagram of Typical Embedded-Coil System Cooling with Chilled Water and Ice |
| 615 | Cooling by Inundation Table 1 Temperature of Various Size Aggregates Cooled by Inundation Air-Blast Cooling Table 2 Bin Compartment Analysis for Determining Refrigeration Loads and Static Pressures |
| 616 | Table 3 Resistance Pressure Other Cooling Methods System Selection Parameters Control of Subsurface Water Flow |
| 617 | Fig. 2 Typical Freezing Point Soil Stabilization Thermal Design Piling Design Slab-on-Grade Buildings, Outdoor Slabs, and Equipment Pads Design Considerations Passive Cooling Air Convection Systems Liquid Convection Systems |
| 618 | Two-Phase Systems (Heat Pipes) Fig. 3 Thermo Ring Pile Placement Fig. 4 Typical Thermo-Probe Installation Fig. 5 Active Ground Stabilization System Active Systems |
| 619 | References Bibliography |
| 620 | IP_R14_Ch46 Flow Sheets and Specifications Refrigeration: Service or Utility |
| 621 | Load Characteristics Production Philosophy Flexibility Requirements Safety Requirements Corrosion Toxicity |
| 622 | Fire and Explosion Refrigeration System Malfunction Maintenance Equipment Characteristics Automation |
| 623 | Outdoor Construction Energy Recovery Performance Testing Insulation Requirements Design Standards and Codes Start-Up and Shutdown |
| 624 | Refrigerants Refrigeration Systems |
| 625 | Refrigeration Equipment Compressors Absorption Equipment Condensers |
| 626 | Evaporators |
| 627 | Instrumentation and Controls Cooling Towers and Spray Ponds Miscellaneous Equipment Bibliography |
| 628 | IP_R14_Ch47 General Applications Low-Temperature Properties Fluid Properties |
| 629 | Fig. 1 Phase Diagram for Helium 4 Fig. 2 Specific Heat for Helium 4 as Function of Temperature for Various Pressures Fig. 3 Pressure/Volume Diagram for Helium 4 near Its Vapor Dome Table 1 Key Properties of Selected Cryogens |
| 630 | Fig. 4 Fraction of Liquid Hydrogen Evaporated due to Ortho-Parahydrogen Conversion as Function of Storage Time Fig. 5 Pressure / Volume Diagram for Hydrogen near Its Vapor Dome Fig. 6 Pressure / Volume Diagram for Nitrogen near Its Vapor Dome Thermal Properties |
| 631 | Fig. 7 Specific Heat of Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 8 Integrated Average Specific Heat (from 540°R) for Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 9 Thermal Conductivity of Common Cryogenic Materials Table 2 Integrated Average Specific Heat for Cryogenic Materials, in Btu/lbm · °R |
| 632 | Fig. 10 Integrated Average Thermal Conductivity (from 540°R) for Common Cryogenic Materials Electrical and Magnetic Properties Fig. 11 Integrated Average Thermal Coefficient of Expansion (from 540°R) for Common Cryogenic Materials Table 3 Integrated Average Thermal Conductivity for Cryogenic Materials, in Btu/h · ft · °F Fig. 12 Electrical Resistivity of Some Common Cryogenic Materials |
| 633 | Mechanical Properties Refrigeration and Liquefaction Isenthalpic Expansion |
| 634 | Fig. 13 Schematic and Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Simple Joule-Thomson Cycle Refrigerator Fig. 14 Dual-Pressure Joule-Thomson Cycle Used as Liquefier Isentropic Expansion |
| 635 | Fig. 15 Schematic for Cold-Gas Expansion Refrigerator and Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Cycle Combined Isenthalpic and Isentropic Expansion Fig. 16 Schematic for Claude-Cycle Refrigerator and Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Cycle Mixed-Refrigerant Cycle |
| 636 | Fig. 17 Classical Cascade Compressed-Vapor Refrigerator Fig. 18 Three-Level and Nine-Level Cascade-Cycle Cooling Curves for Natural Gas Fig. 19 Mixed-Refrigerant Cycle for Natural Gas Liquefaction Fig. 20 Propane-Precooled Mixed-Refrigerant-Cycle Cooling Curve for Natural Gas Liquefaction |
| 637 | Comparison of Refrigeration and Liquefaction Systems Table 4 Comparison of Several Liquefaction Systems Using Air as Working Fluid Table 5 Reversible Power Requirements |
| 638 | Fig. 21 Efficiency as Percent of Carnot Efficiency Cryocoolers Recuperative Systems Fig. 22 Schematic of Joule-Thomson and Brayton Cycles |
| 639 | Fig. 23 Isenthalpic Expansion of Multicomponent Gaseous Mixture from A to B |
| 640 | Fig. 24 Kleemenko-Cycle Cooler |
| 641 | Fig. 25 Schematic of Stirling Cryocooler Regenerative Systems Fig. 26 Schematic for Orifice Pulse Tube Cryocooler |
| 642 | Fig. 27 Schematic of Double-Inlet Pulse Tube Refrigerator Using Secondary Orifice Fig. 28 Comparison of Carnot Efficiency for Several Recent Pulse Tube Cryocoolers with Similarly Powered Stirling Cryocoolers Fig. 29 Three-Stage Series Orifice Pulse Tube Cryocooler for Liquefying Helium |
| 643 | Fig. 30 Schematic for Single-Stage Gifford-McMahon Refrigerator Fig. 31 Cross Section of Three-Stage Gifford-McMahon Refrigerator Separation and Purification of Gases |
| 644 | Air Separation Fig. 32 Linde Single-Column Gas Separator Fig. 33 Traditional Linde Double-Column Gas Separator |
| 645 | Fig. 34 Argon Recovery Subsystem Fig. 35 Contemporary Double-Column Gas Separator Helium Recovery |
| 646 | Fig. 36 Schematic of U.S. Bureau of Mines Helium Separation Plant Natural Gas Processing Purification Procedures |
| 647 | Equipment Compression Systems Expansion Devices |
| 648 | Heat Exchangers |
| 649 | Fig. 37 Enlarged View of One Layer of Plate-and-Fin Heat Exchanger Before Assembly Fig. 38 Typical Flow Arrangement for Reversing Heat Exchanger in Air Separation Plant |
| 650 | Fig. 39 Flow Arrangement in Regenerator Operation Fig. 40 Specific Heat of Several Rare Earth Matrix Materials Low-Temperature Insulations |
| 651 | High-Vacuum Insulation Table 6 Apparent Thermal Conductivity of Selected Insulations Evacuated Multilayer Insulations Table 7 Accommodation Coefficients for Several Gases |
| 652 | Fig. 41 Effect of Residual Gas Pressure on Apparent Thermal Conductivity of Multilayer Insulation Evacuated Powder and Fibrous Insulations Fig. 42 Apparent Thermal Conductivity of Several Powder Insulations as Function of Residual Gas Pressure |
| 653 | Homogeneous Material Insulations Composite Material Insulations Systems Storage and Transfer Systems Storage Systems Fig. 43 Laboratory Storage Dewars for Liquid Oxygen and Nitrogen Table 8 Insulation Selection for Various Cryogenic Storage Vessels |
| 654 | Transfer Systems Instrumentation Pressure Measurements Thermometry Liquid-Level Measurements |
| 655 | Density Measurements Flow Measurements Hazards of Cryogenic Systems Physiological Hazards Construction and Operations Hazards |
| 656 | Fig. 44 Coefficient of Linear Expansion for Several Metals as Function of Temperature Fig. 45 Pressure Developed During Warming of Liquid Nitrogen in Closed Container Flammability and Detonability Hazards Table 9 Flammability and Detonability Limits of Hydrogen and Methane Gas |
| 657 | Fig. 46 Flammable Limits for O2/N2/CH4 System Hazard Evaluation Summary |
| 658 | References Bibliography |
| 660 | IP_R14_Ch48 Autocascade Systems Operational Characteristics Fig. 1 Simple Autocascade Refrigeration System |
| 661 | Fig. 2 Four-Stage Autocascade System Design Considerations Custom-Designed and Field- Erected Systems Single-Refrigerant Systems Two-Stage Systems Refrigerant and Compressor Selection |
| 662 | Table 1 Low-Temperature Characteristics of Several Refrigerants at Three Evaporating Temperatures Special Multistage Systems Cascade Systems Fig. 3 Simple Cascade System Refrigerants for Low-Temperature Circuit |
| 663 | Fig. 4 Simple Cascade Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram Fig. 5 Two-Stage Cascade System Compressor Lubrication Compressors |
| 664 | Fig. 6 Three-Stage Cascade System Table 2 Properties of R-508b Table 3 Theoretical Performance of Cascade System Using R-503, R-13, R-23, or R-508b Table 4 Theoretical Compressor Performance Data for Two Different Evaporating Temperatures |
| 665 | Choice of Metal for Piping and Vessels Low-Temperature Materials Fig. 7 Tensile Strength Versus Temperature of Several Metals Metals Table 5 Several Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Alloys at –321°F |
| 666 | Fig. 8 Tensile Elongation Versus Temperature of Several Metals |
| 667 | Thermoplastic Polymers Fig. 9 Shear Modulus Versus Normalized Temperature (T/Tg) for Thermoplastic Polymers Table 6 Approximate Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures for Common Polymers Thermosetting Plastics Fig. 10 Tensile Strength Versus Temperature of Plastics and Polymer Matrix Laminates Fiber Composites |
| 668 | Table 7 Tensile Properties of Unidirectional Fiber-Reinforced Composites Adhesives Table 8 Components of Low-Temperature Refrigerated Pipe Insulation System Insulation |
| 669 | Heat Transfer Secondary Coolants Table 9 Overview of Some Secondary Coolants |
| 670 | Table 10 Refrigerant Properties of Some Low-Temperature Secondary Coolants References Bibliography |
| 671 | IP_R14_Ch49 Preservation Applications Principles of Biological Preservation |
| 672 | Fig. 1 Schematic of Response of Single Cell During Freezing as Function of Cooling Rate Fig. 2 Generic Survival Signature Indicating Independent Injury Mechanisms Associated with Extremes of Slow and Rapid Cooling Rates During Cell Freezing Table 1 Summary of Cryoprotective Agents (CPAs) |
| 673 | Table 2 Spectrum of Various Types of Living Cells and Tissues Commonly Stored by Freezing (as of 1993) Preservation of Biological Materials by Freezing |
| 674 | Preservation of Biological Materials by Freeze Drying Fig. 3 Key Steps in Freeze-Drying Process Fig. 4 Phase Diagrams of Aqueous Solutions |
| 675 | Preservation of Biological Materials by Vitrification Preservation of Biological Materials by Undercooling |
| 676 | Research Applications Electron Microscopy Specimen Preparation Cryomicroscopy |
| 677 | Cryomicrotome Clinical Applications Hypothermia Cryosurgery |
| 678 | Table 3 Adjuvants for Cryosurgical Application Refrigeration Hardware for Cryobiological Applications Fig. 5 Generic Thermal History for Example Cryopreservation Procedure |
| 679 | References |
| 681 | Bibliography |
| 682 | IP_R14_Ch50 |
| 691 | Sources |
| 692 | IP_R14_Ch51 Selected Codes and Standards Published by Various Societies and Associations |
| 718 | ORGANIZATIONS (Continued) |
| 720 | R14AdditionsI-P 2011 HVAC Applications Fig. 9 Typical Layout of UVGI Fixtures for Patient Isolation Room 2012 HVAC Systems and Equipment Fig. 1 Dehumidification Process Points |
| 721 | Table 4 Energy Cost Percentiles from 2003 Commercial Survey 2013 Fundamentals |
| 722 | Table 8 Enhanced Model Stack and Wind Coefficients Fig. 3 Indirect Evaporative Cooling (IEC) Heat Exchanger Fig. 25 Typical Sensible Storage Connection Scheme |
| 723 | Fig. 13 The Psychrometric Processes of Exchangers in Series Mode |
| 724 | IP_R2014 Index Abbreviations, F37 Absorbents Absorption Acoustics. See Sound Activated carbon adsorption, A46.7 Adaptation, environmental, F9.16 ADPI. See Air diffusion performance index (ADPI) Adsorbents Adsorption Aeration, of farm crops, A25 Aerosols, S29.1 Affinity laws for centrifugal pumps, S44.8 AFUE. See Annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE) AHU. See Air handlers Air Air barriers, F26.5 Airborne infectious diseases, F10.7 Air cleaners. (See also Filters, air; Industrial exhaust gas cleaning) Air conditioners. (See also Central air conditioning) |
| 725 | Air conditioning. (See also Central air conditioning) Air contaminants, F11. (See also Contaminants) Aircraft, A12 Air curtains, display cases, R15.6 Air diffusers, S20 Air diffusion, F20 Air diffusion performance index (ADPI), A57.5 Air distribution, A57; F20; S4; S20 Air exchange rate Air filters. See Filters, air Airflow |
| 726 | Airflow retarders, F25.9, 10 Air flux, F25.2. (See also Airflow) Air handlers Air inlets Air intakes Air jets. See Air diffusion Air leakage. (See also Infiltration) Air outlets Airports, air conditioning, A3.6 Air quality. [See also Indoor air quality (IAQ)] Airtightness, F36.24 Air-to-air energy recovery, S26 Air-to-transmission ratio, S5.13 Air transport, R27 Air washers Algae, control, A49.5 All-air systems Altitude, effects of Ammonia Anchor bolts, seismic restraint, A55.7 Anemometers Animal environments Annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE), S33.9; S34.2 Antifreeze Antisweat heaters (ASH), R15.5 Apartment buildings |
| 727 | Aquifers, thermal storage, S51.6 Archimedes number, F20.6 Archives. See Museums, galleries, archives, and libraries Arenas Argon, recovery, R47.17 Asbestos, F10.5 ASH. See Antisweat heaters (ASH) Atriums Attics, unconditioned, F27.2 Auditoriums, A5.3 Automobiles Autopsy rooms, A9.5, 6 Avogadro’s law, and fuel combustion, F28.10 Backflow-prevention devices, S47.13 BACnet®, A40.17; F7.18 Bacteria Bakery products, R41 Balance point, heat pumps, S49.9 Balancing. (See also Testing, adjusting, and balancing) BAS. See Building automation systems (BAS) Baseboard units Basements Beer’s law, F4.16 Bernoulli equation, F21.1 Best efficiency point (BEP), S44.7 Beverages, R39 BIM. See Building information modeling (BIM) Bioaerosols Biocides, control, A49.5 Biodiesel, F28.6 Biological safety cabinets, A16.6 Biomanufacturing cleanrooms, A18.7 Bioterrorism. See Chemical, biological, radio- logical, and explosive (CBRE) incidents Boilers, S32 Boiling Brake horsepower, S44.8 Brayton cycle Bread, R41 Breweries Brines. See Coolants, secondary Building automation systems (BAS), A40.17; F7.14 Building energy monitoring, A41. (See also Energy, monitoring) Building envelopes |
| 728 | Building information modeling (BIM), A40.15 Building materials, properties, F26 Building thermal mass Burners Buses Bus terminals Butane, commercial, F28.5 CAD. See Computer-aided design (CAD) Cafeterias, service water heating, A50.14, 20 Calcium chloride brines, F31.1 Candy Capillary action, and moisture flow, F25.10 Capillary tubes Carbon dioxide Carbon emissions, F34.6 Carbon monoxide Cargo containers, R25 Carnot refrigeration cycle, F2.6 Cattle, beef, and dairy, A24.7. (See also Animal environments) CAV. See Constant air volume (CAV) Cavitation, F3.13 CBRE. See Chemical, biological, radiological, and explosive (CBRE) incidents Ceiling effect. See Coanda effect Ceilings Central air conditioning, A42. (See also Air conditioning) Central plants Central systems Cetane number, engine fuels, F28.8 CFD. See Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) Charging, refrigeration systems, R8.4 Chemical, biological, radiological, and explosive (CBRE) incidents, A59 |
| 729 | Chemical plants Chemisorption, A46.7 Chilled beams, S20.9 Chilled water (CW) Chillers Chilton-Colburn j-factor analogy, F6.7 Chimneys, S35 Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), A34.6 Chocolate, R42.1. (See also Candy) Choking, F3.13 CHP systems. See Combined heat and power (CHP) Cinemas, A5.3 Claude cycle, R47.8 Cleanrooms. See Clean spaces Clean spaces, A18 Clear-sky solar radiation, calculation, F14.7 Climate change, effect on climatic design conditions, F14.15 Climatic design information, F14 Clothing CLTD/CLF. See Cooling load temperature differential method with solar cooling load factors (CLTD/CLF) Coal |
| 730 | Coanda effect, A33.6; F20.2, 6; S20.2 Codes, A51. (See also Standards) Coefficient of performance (COP) Cogeneration. See Combined heat and power (CHP) Coils Colburn’s analogy, F4.17 Colebrook equation Collectors, solar, A35.6, 11, 23, 25; S37.3 Colleges and universities, A7.11 Combined heat and power (CHP), S7 Combustion, F28 Combustion air systems Combustion turbine inlet cooling (CTIC), S7.20; S8.1 Comfort. (See also Physiological principles, humans) |
| 731 | Commercial and public buildings, A3 Commissioning, A43 Compressors, S38 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), F13.1 Computer-aided design (CAD), A18.5; A40.14 Computers, A40 Concert halls, A5.4 Concrete Condensate Condensation Condensers, S39 |
| 732 | Conductance, thermal, F4.3; F25.1 Conduction Conductivity, thermal, F25.1; F26.1 Constant air volume (CAV) Constant-volume, all-air systems Construction. (See also Building envelopes) Containers. (See also Cargo containers) Contaminants Continuity, fluid dynamics, F3.2 Control. (See also Controls, automatic; Supervisory control) |
| 733 | Controlled-atmosphere (CA) storage Controlled-environment rooms (CERs), and plant growth, A24.16 Controls, automatic, F7. (See also Control) Convection Convectors Convention centers, A5.5 Conversion factors, F38 Coolants, secondary Coolers. (See also Refrigerators) Cooling. (See also Air conditioning) Cooling load |
| 734 | Cooling load temperature differential method with solar cooling load factors (CLTD/CLF), F18.49 Cooling towers, S40 Cool storage, S51.1 COP. See Coefficient of performance (COP) Corn, drying, A25.1 Correctional facilities. See Justice facilities Corrosion Costs. (See also Economics) Cotton, drying, A25.8 Courthouses, A9.4 Courtrooms, A9.5 CPVC. See Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) Crawlspaces Critical spaces Crops. See Farm crops Cruise terminals, A3.6 Cryogenics, R47 |
| 735 | Curtain walls, F15.5 Cycloparaffins, R12.3 Dairy products, R33 Dampers Dams, concrete cooling, R45.1 Darcy equation, F21.6 Darcy-Weisbach equation Data-driven modeling Data processing areas Daylighting DDC. See Direct digital control (DDC) Dedicated outdoor air system (DOAS), S4.13; S18.2, 7; S25.4 Definitions, of refrigeration terms, R50 Defrosting Degree-days, F14.12; F19.18 Dehumidification, A47.12; S24 Dehumidifiers Dehydration Density Dental facilities, A8.15 Desiccants, F32.1; S24.1 Design-day climatic data, F14.12 Desorption isotherm, F26.19 Desuperheaters Dew-point Diamagnetism, and superconductivity, R47.5 Diesel fuel, F28.8 Diffusers, air, sound control, A48.12 Diffusion Diffusivity Dilution Dining halls, in justice facilities, A9.4 DIR. See Dispersive infrared (DIR) Direct digital control (DDC), F7.4, 10 Direct numerical simulation (DNS), turbulence modeling, F13.4; F24.10 Dirty bombs. See Chemical, biological, radio- logical, and explosive (CBRE) incidents Discharge coefficients, in fluid flow, F3.9 Dispersive infrared (DIR), F7.9 Display cases, R15.2, 5 District energy (DE), S12.1 District heating and cooling (DHC), S12 |
| 736 | d-limonene, F31.13 DNS. See Direct numerical simulation (DNS) Doors Dormitories Draft Drag, in fluid flow, F3.5 Driers, R7.6. (See also Dryers) Drip station, steam systems, S12.11 Dryers. (See also Driers) Drying DTW. See Dual-temperature water (DTW) system Dual-duct systems Dual-temperature water (DTW) system, S13.1 DuBois equation, F9.3 Duct design Ducts Dust mites, F25.17 Dusts, S29.1 Dynamometers, A17.1 Earth, stabilization, R45.3, 4 Earthquakes, seismic-resistant design, A55.1 Economic analysis, A37 Economic coefficient of performance (ECOP), S7.49 Economics. (See also Costs) |
| 737 | Economizers ECOP. See Economic coefficient of performance (ECOP) ECS. See Environmental control system (ECS) Eddy diffusivity, F6.7 Educational facilities, A7 EER. See Energy efficiency ratio (EER) Effectiveness, heat transfer, F4.21 Effective radiant flux (ERF), A54.2 Efficiency Eggs, R34 EIFS. See Exterior insulation finishing system (EIFS) Electricity Electric thermal storage (ETS), S51.16 Electrostatic precipitators, S29.6; S30.7 Elevators Emissions, pollution, F28.7 Emissivity, F4.2 Emittance, thermal, F25.2 Enclosed vehicular facilities, A15 Energy Energy efficiency ratio (EER), S50.1 Energy savings performance contracting (ESPC), A37.8 Energy transfer station, S12.32 Engines, S7 |
| 738 | Engine test facilities, A17 Enhanced tubes. See Finned-tube heat transfer coils Enthalpy Entropy, F2.1 Environmental control Environmental control system (ECS), A12 Environmental health, F10 Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) Equipment vibration, A48.43; F8.17 ERF. See Effective radiant flux (ERF) ESPC. See Energy savings performance contracting (ESPC) Ethylene glycol, in hydronic systems, S13.23 ETS. See Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS); Electric thermal storage (ETS) Evaluation. See Testing Evaporation, in tubes Evaporative coolers. (See also Refrigerators) Evaporative cooling, A52 Evaporators. (See also Coolers, liquid) Exfiltration, F16.1 Exhaust Exhibit buildings, temporary, A5.8 Exhibit cases, A23.5, 16 Exhibition centers, A5.5 Expansion joints and devices, S46.10 Expansion tanks, S12.8 Explosions. See Chemical, biological, radio- logical, and explosive (CBRE) incidents Fairs, A5.8 Family courts, A9.3. (See also Juvenile facilities) Fan-coil units, S5.6 Fans, S21 Farm crops, drying and storing, A25 |
| 739 | Faults, system, reasons for detecting, A39.6 f-Chart method, sizing heating and cooling systems, A35.20 Fenestration. (See also Windows) Fick’s law, F6.1 Filters, air, S29. (See also Air cleaners) Filters, water, A49.7 Finned-tube heat-distributing units, S36.1, 5 Finned-tube heat transfer coils, F4.25 Fins, F4.6 Fire/smoke management. See Smoke management Firearm laboratories, A9.6 Fireplaces, S34.4 Fire safety Fish, R19; R32 Fitness facilities. (See also Gymnasiums) Fittings Fixed-guideway vehicles, A11.7. (See also Mass-transit systems) Fixture units, A50.1, 26 Flammability limits, gaseous fuels, F28.1 Flash tank, steam systems, S11.15 Floors Flowers, cut Flowmeters, A38.12; F36.19 Fluid dynamics computations, F13.1 Fluid flow, F3 Food. (See also specific foods) |
| 740 | Food service Forced-air systems, residential, A1.1 Forensic labs, A9.5 Fouling factor Foundations, moisture control, A44.11 Fountains, Legionella pneumophila control, A49.7 Fourier’s law, and heat transfer, F25.5 Four-pipe systems, S5.5 Framing Freeze drying, A30.6 Freeze prevention. (See also Freeze protection systems) Freeze protection systems, A51.17, 19 Freezers Freezing Friction, in fluid flow Fruit juice, R38 Fruits Fuel cells, combined heat and power (CHP), S7.22 Fuels, F28 Fume hoods, laboratory exhaust, A16.3 Fungal pathogens, F10.8 Furnaces, S33 |
| 741 | Galleries. See Museums, galleries, archives, and libraries Garages Gases Gas-fired equipment, S34. (See also Natural gas) Gas vents, S35.1 GCHP. See Ground-coupled heat pumps (GCHP) Generators Geothermal energy, A34 Geothermal heat pumps (GHP), A34.10 Glaser method, F25.15 Glazing Glossary, of refrigeration terms, R50 Glycols, desiccant solution, S24.2 Graphical symbols, F37 Green design, and sustainability, F35.1 Greenhouses. (See also Plant environments) Grids, for computational fluid dynamics, F13.4 Ground-coupled heat pumps (GCHP) Ground-source heat pumps (GSHP), A34.1, 9 Groundwater heat pumps (GWHP), A34.25 GSHP. See Ground-source heat pumps (GSHP) Guard stations, in justice facilities, A9.4 GWHP. See Groundwater heat pumps (GWHP) GWP. See Global warming potential (GWP) Gymnasiums, A5.5; A7.3 HACCP. See Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) Halocarbon Hartford loop, S11.3 Hay, drying, A25.7 Hazard analysis and control, F10.4 Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP), R22.4 Hazen-Williams equation, F22.1 HB. See Heat balance (HB) Health Health care facilities, A8. (See also specific types) Heat Heat and moisture control, F27.1 Heat balance (HB), S9.19 Heat capacity, F25.1 Heat control, F27 Heaters, S34 Heat exchangers, S48 |
| 742 | Heat flow, F25. (See also Heat transfer) Heat flux, F25.1 Heat gain. (See also Load calculations) Heating Heating load Heating values of fuels, F28.3, 7, 9 Heat loss. (See also Load calculations) Heat pipes, air-to-air energy recovery, S26.13 Heat pumps Heat recovery. (See also Energy, recovery) Heat storage. See Thermal storage Heat stress Heat transfer, F4; F25; F26; F27. (See also Heat flow) |
| 743 | Heat transmission Heat traps, A50.2 Helium High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters, A28.3; S29.6; S30.3 High-rise buildings. See Tall Buildings High-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization, R33.2 High-temperature water (HTW) system, S13.1 Homeland security. See Chemical, biological, radiological, and explosive (CBRE) incidents Hoods Hospitals, A8.2 Hot-box method, of thermal modeling, F25.8 Hotels and motels, A6 Hot-gas bypass, R1.35 Houses of worship, A5.3 HSI. See Heat stress, index (HSI) HTST. See High-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization Humidification, S22 Humidifiers, S22 Humidity |
| 744 | HVAC security, A59 Hydrogen, liquid, R47.3 Hydronic systems, S35. (See also Water systems) Hygrometers, F7.9; F36.10, 11 Hygrothermal loads, F25.2 Hygrothermal modeling, F25.16; F27.10 IAQ. See Indoor air quality (IAQ) IBD. See Integrated building design (IBD) Ice Ice makers Ice rinks, A5.5; R44 ID50‚ mean infectious dose, A59.8 Ignition temperatures of fuels, F28.2 IGUs. See Insulating glazing units (IGUs) Illuminance, F36.30 Indoor air quality (IAQ). (See also Air quality) Indoor environmental modeling, F13 Induction Industrial applications Industrial environments, A14; A31; A32 Industrial exhaust gas cleaning, S29. (See also Air cleaners) Industrial hygiene, F10.3 Infiltration. (See also Air leakage) |
| 745 | Infrared applications In-room terminal systems Instruments, F14. (See also specific instruments or applications) Insulating glazing units (IGUs), F15.4 Insulation, thermal Integrated building design (IBD), A58.1 Integrated design process (IDP), A58.1 Intercoolers, ammonia refrigeration systems, R2.11 Jacketing, insulation, R10.6 Jails, A9.3 Joule-Thomson cycle, R47.6 Judges’ chambers, A9.5 Juice, R38.1 Jury facilities, A9.5 Justice facilities, A9 Juvenile facilities, A9.1. (See also Family courts) K-12 schools, A7.2 Kelvin’s equation, F25.11 Kirchoff’s law, F4.13 Kitchens, A33 |
| 746 | Kleemenko cycle, R47.13 Krypton, recovery, R47.18 Laboratories, A16 Laboratory information management systems (LIMS), A9.7 Lakes, heat transfer, A34.30 Laminar flow Large eddy simulation (LES), turbulence modeling, F13.3; F24.10 Laser Doppler anemometers (LDA), F36.17 Laser Doppler velocimeters (LDV), F36.17 Latent energy change materials, S51.2 Laundries LCR. See Load collector ratio (LCR) LD50‚ mean lethal dose, A59.8 LDA. See Laser Doppler anemometers (LDA) LDV. See Laser Doppler velocimeters (LDV) LE. See Life expectancy (LE) rating Leakage Leakage function, relationship, F16.15 Leak detection of refrigerants, F29.9 Legionella pneumophila, A49.6; F10.7 Legionnaires’ disease. See Legionella pneumophila LES. See Large eddy simulation (LES) Lewis relation, F6.9; F9.4 Libraries. See Museums, galleries, archives, and libraries Life expectancy (LE) rating, film, A22.3 Lighting Light measurement, F36.30 LIMS. See Laboratory information management systems (LIMS) Linde cycle, R47.6 Liquefied natural gas (LNG), S8.6 Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), F28.5 Liquid overfeed (recirculation) systems, R4 Lithium bromide/water, F30.69 Lithium chloride, S24.2 Load calculations Load collector ratio (LCR), A35.21 Local exhaust. See Exhaust Loss coefficients Louvers, F15.29 Low-temperature water (LTW) system, S13.1 LPG. See Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) LTW. See Low-temperature water (LTW) system Lubricants, R6.1 Lubricants, R12. (See also Lubrication; Oil) |
| 747 | Lubrication, R12 Mach number, S38.31 Maintenance. (See also Operation and maintenance) Makeup air units, S28.8 Malls, A2.6 Manometers, differential pressure readout, A38.12 Manufactured homes, A1.7 Masonry, insulation, F26.7. (See also Building envelopes) Mass transfer, F6 Mass-transit systems McLeod gages, F36.14 Mean infectious dose (ID50), A59.8 Mean lethal dose (LD50), A59.8 Mean radiant temperature (MRT), A54.1 Mean temperature difference, F4.21 Measurement, F36. (See also Instruments) Meat, R30 Mechanical equipment room, central Mechanical traps, steam systems, S11.8 Medium-temperature water (MTW) system, S13.1 Meshes, for computational fluid dynamics, F13.4 Metabolic rate, F9.6 Metals and alloys, low-temperature, R48.6 Microbial growth, R22.4 Microbial volatile organic chemicals (MVOCs), F10.7 Microbiology of foods, R22.1 Microphones, F36.27 Mines, A29 Modeling. (See also Data-driven modeling; Energy, modeling) Moist air Moisture |
| 748 | Mold, F25.17 Montreal Protocol, F29.1 Motors, S45 Movie theaters, A5.3 MRT. See Mean radiant temperature (MRT) Multifamily residences, A1.6 Multiple-use complexes Multisplit unitary equipment, S49.1 Multizone airflow modeling, F13.14 Museums, galleries, archives, and libraries MVOCs. See Microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOCs) Natatoriums. (See also Swimming pools) Natural gas, F28.5 Navier-Stokes equations, F13.1 NC curves. See Noise criterion (NC) curves Net positive suction head (NPSH), A34.27; R2.8; S44.10 Night setback, recovery, A42.36 Nitrogen Noise, F8.13. (See also Sound) Noise criterion (NC) curves, F8.16 Noncondensable gases NPSH. See Net positive suction head (NPSH) NTU. See Number of transfer units (NTU) Nuclear facilities, A28 Number of transfer units (NTU) Nursing facilities, A8.14 Nuts, storage, R42.7 Odors, F12 ODP. See Ozone depletion potential (ODP) Office buildings Oil, fuel, F28.6 |
| 749 | Oil. (See also Lubricants) Olf unit, F12.6 One-pipe systems Operating costs, A37.4 Operation and maintenance, A39. (See also Maintenance) Optimization, A42.4 Outdoor air, free cooling Outpatient health care facilities, A8.14 Owning costs, A37.1 Oxygen Ozone Packaged terminal air conditioners (PTACs), S50.5 Packaged terminal heat pumps (PTHPs), S50.5 PACs. See Polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAC) PAH. See Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Paint, and moisture problems, F25.17 Panel heating and cooling, S6. (See also Radiant heating and cooling) Paper Paper products facilities, A26 Paraffins, R12.3 Parallel compressor systems, R15.13 Particulate matter, indoor air quality (IAQ), F10.4, 6 Pasteurization, R33.2 Peanuts, drying, A25.8 PEL. See Permissible exposure limits (PEL) Performance contracting, A41.2 Permafrost stabilization, R45.4 Permeability Permeance Permissible exposure limits (PELs), F10.6 Personal environmental control (PEC) systems, F9.25 Pharmaceutical manufacturing cleanrooms, A18.7 Phase-change materials, thermal storage of, S51.15, 26 Photographic materials, A22 Photovoltaic (PV) systems, S36.18. (See also Solar energy) Physical properties of materials, F33 Physiological principles, humans. (See also Comfort) Pigs. See Swine Pipes, S46. (See also Piping) |
| 750 | Piping. (See also Pipes) Pitot-static tubes, F36.17 Pitot tubes, A38.2; F36.17 Places of assembly, A5 Planes. See Aircraft Plank’s equation, R20.7 Plant environments, A24.10 Plenums PMV. See Predicted mean vote (PMV) Police stations, A9.1 Pollutant transport modeling. See Contami- nants, indoor, concentration prediction Pollution, air, and combustion, F28.7, 14 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), F10.6 Polydimethylsiloxane, F31.13 Ponds, spray, S40.6 Pope cell, F36.12 Positive positioners, F7.8 Potatoes Poultry. (See also Animal environments; Chickens; Turkeys) Power-law airflow model, F13.14 Power plants, A27 PPD. See Predicted percent dissatisfied (PPD) Prandtl number, F4.17 Precooling Predicted mean vote (PMV), F36.31 Predicted percent dissatisfied (PPD), F9.18 Preschools, A7.1 Pressure |
| 751 | Pressure drop. (See also Darcy-Weisbach equation) Primary-air systems, S5.10 Printing plants, A20 Prisons, A9.3 Produce Product load, R15.5 Propane Propylene glycol, hydronic systems, S13.23 Psychrometers, F1.13 Psychrometrics, F1 PTACs. See Packaged terminal air condition- ers (PTACs) PTHPs. See Packaged terminal heat pumps (PTHPs) Public buildings. See Commercial and public buildings; Places of assembly Pumps Purge units, centrifugal chillers, S43.11 Radiant heating and cooling, A55; S6.1; S15; S33.4. (See also Panel heating and cooling) Radiant time series (RTS) method, F18.2, 20 Radiation Radiators, S36.1, 5 Radioactive gases, contaminants, F11.19 Radiometers, A54.7 Radon, F10.11, 17, 22 Rail cars Rail cars, R25. (See also Cargo containers) Railroad tunnels, ventilation |
| 752 | Rain, and building envelopes, F25.4 RANS. See Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equation Rapid-transit systems. See Mass-transit systems Rayleigh number, F4.19 RC curves. See Room criterion (RC) curves Receivers Recycling refrigerants, R9.3 Refrigerant/absorbent pairs, F2.15 Refrigerant-control devices, R11 Refrigerants, F29.1 Refrigerant transfer units (RTU), liquid chillers, S43.11 Refrigerated facilities, R23 Refrigeration, Refrigeration, F1.1. (See also Absorption) |
| 753 | Refrigeration, F1.1. (See also Adsorption) Refrigeration oils, R12. (See also Lubricants) Refrigerators Regulators. (See also Valves) Residential systems, A1 Resistance, thermal, F4; F25; F26. (See also R-values) Resistance temperature devices (RTDs), F7.9; F36.6 Resistivity, thermal, F25.1 Resource utilization factor (RUF), F34.2 Respiration of fruits and vegetables, R19.17 Restaurants Retail facilities, A2 Retrofit performance monitoring, A41.4 Retrofitting refrigerant systems, contaminant control, R7.10 Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equation, F13.3; F24.10 Reynolds number, F3.3 Rice, drying, A25.9 RMS. See Root mean square (RMS) Road tunnels, A15.3 Roof ponds, Legionella pneumophila control, A49.7 Roofs Room air distribution, A57; S20.1 Room criterion (RC) curves, F8.16 Root mean square (RMS), F36.1 Roughness factors, ducts, F21.6 RTDs. See Resistance temperature devices (RTDs) RTS. See Radiant time series (RTS) RTU. See Refrigerant transfer units (RTU) RUF. See Resource utilization factor (RUF) Rusting, of building components, F25.17 R-values, F23; F25; F26. (See also Resistance, thermal) Safety |
| 754 | Safety showers, Legionella pneumophila control, A49.7 Sanitation Savings-to-investment-ratio (SIR), A37.11 Scale Schematic design, A58.9 Schneider system, R23.7 Schools Security. See Chemical, biological, radio- logical, and explosive (CBRE) incidents Seeds, storage, A25.11 Seismic restraint, A48.51; A55.1 Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs), F10.4, 12; F11.14 Sensors Separators, lubricant, R11.24 Service water heating, A50 SES. See Subway environment simulation (SES) program Shading Ships, A13 Short-tube restrictors, R11.31 Single-duct systems, all-air, S4.10 SIR. See Savings-to-investment ratio (SIR) Skating rinks, R44.1 Skylights, and solar heat gain, F15.27 Slab heating, A51 Slab-on-grade foundations, A44.11 SLR. See Solar-load ratio (SLR) Smoke management, A53 Snow-melting systems, A51 |
| 755 | Snubbers, seismic, A55.8 Sodium chloride brines, F31.1 Soft drinks, R39.10 Soils. (See also Earth) Solar energy, A35; S37.1 (See also Solar heat gain; Solar radiation) Solar heat gain, F15.13; F18.14 Solar-load ratio (SLR), A35.21 Solar-optical glazing, F15.13 Solar radiation, F14.7; F15.13 Solid fuel Solvent drying, constant-moisture, A30.7 Soot, F28.17 Sorbents, F32.1 Sorption isotherm, F25.10, F26.19 Sound, F8. (See also Noise) Sound control, A48; F8. (See also Noise) Soybeans, drying, A25.7 Specific heat Spot cooling Spot heating, A54.4 Stack effect Stadiums, A5.4 Stairwells, smoke control, A53.9 Standard atmosphere, U.S., F1.1 Standards, A51. (See also Codes) |
| 756 | Static electricity and humidity, S22.2 Steam Steam systems, S11 Steam traps, S11.7 Stefan-Boltzmann equation, F4.2, 12 Stevens’ law, F12.3 Stirling cycle, R47.14 Stokers, S31.16 Storage Stoves, heating, S34.5 Stratification Stroboscopes, F36.27 Subcoolers Subway environment simulation (SES) program, A15.3 Subway systems. (See also Mass-transit systems) Suction risers, R2.23 Sulfur content, fuel oils, F28.7 Superconductivity, diamagnetism, R47.5 Supervisory control, A42 Supply air outlets, S20.1. (See also Air outlets) Surface effect. See Coanda effect Surface transportation Surface water heat pump (SWHP), A34.12 Sustainability Sustainability, F16.1; F35.1; S49.2 |
| 757 | SVFs. See Synthetic vitreous fibers (SVFs) SVOCs. See Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) SWHP. See Surface water heat pump (SWHP) Swimming pools. (See also Natatoriums) Swine, recommended environment, A24.7 Symbols, F37 Synthetic vitreous fibers (SVFs), F10.5 Tachometers, F36.27 Tall buildings, A4 Tanks, secondary coolant systems, R13.2 Temperature Temperature-controlled transport, R25.1 Temperature index, S22.3 Terminal units, A47.12; S20.8 Terminology, R50 Terrorism. See Chemical, biological, radio- logical, and explosive (CBRE) incidents TES. See Thermal energy storage (TES) Testing Testing, adjusting, and balancing. (See also Balancing) TETD/TA. See Total equivalent temperature differential method with time averaging (TETD/TA) TEWI. See Total equivalent warning impact (TEWI) Textile processing plants, A21 TFM. See Transfer function method (TFM) Theaters, A5.3 Thermal bridges, F25.8 Thermal comfort. See Comfort Thermal emittance, F25.2 Thermal energy storage (TES), S8.5; S51 Thermal properties, F26.1 Thermal resistivity, F25.1 Thermal storage, S51 |
| 758 | Thermal transmission data, F26 Thermistors, R11.4 Thermodynamics, F2.1 Thermometers, F36.5 Thermopile, F7.4; F36.9; R45.4 Thermosiphons Thermostats Three-pipe distribution, S5.5 Tobacco smoke Tollbooths Total equivalent temperature differential method with time averaging (TETD/TA), F18.49 Trailers and trucks, refrigerated, R25. (See also Cargo containers) Transducers, pneumatic pressure, F7.10 Transfer function method (TFM), A40.9; F18.49 Transmittance, thermal, F25.2 Transmitters, pneumatic pressure, F7.10 Transpiration, R19.19 Transportation centers Transport properties of refrigerants, F30 Traps Trucks, refrigerated, R25. (See also Cargo containers) Tuning automatic control systems, F7.18 Tunnels, vehicular, A15.1 Turbines, S7 Turbochargers, heat recovery, S7.34 Turbulence modeling, F13.3 Turbulent flow, fluids, F3.3 Turndown ratio, design capacity, S13.4 Two-node model, for thermal comfort, F9.18 Two-pipe systems, S5.5; S13.19 U.S. Marshal spaces, A9.5 U-factor |
| 759 | Ultralow-penetration air (ULPA) filters, S29.6; S30.3 Ultraviolet (UV) lamp systems, S17 Ultraviolet air and surface treatment, A60 Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI), S16.1. [See also Ultraviolet (UV) lamp systems] Uncertainty analysis Underfloor air distribution (UFAD) systems, A4.5; A57.9 Unitary systems, S49 Unit heaters. See Heaters Units and conversions, F38.1 Unit ventilators, S28.1 Utility interfacing, electric, S7.43 UV. See Ultraviolet (UV) lamp systems UVGI. See Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) Vacuum cooling, of fruits and vegetables, R28.9 Validation, of airflow modeling, F13.9, 10, 17 Valves, Valves, S46. (See also Regulators) Vaporization systems, S8.6 Vapor pressure, F27.8; F33.2 Vapor retarders, jackets, F23.12 Variable-air-volume (VAV) systems Variable-frequency drives, S45.12 Variable refrigerant flow (VRF), S18.1; S49.1, 13 VAV. See Variable-air-volume (VAV) systems Vegetables, R37 Vehicles Vena contracta, F3.4 Vending machines, R16.5 Ventilation, F16 |
| 760 | Ventilators Venting Verification, of airflow modeling, F13.9, 10, 17 Vessels, ammonia refrigeration systems, R2.11 Vibration, F8.17 Vibration control, A48 Viral pathogens, F10.8 Virgin rock temperature (VRT), and heat release rate, A29.3 Viscosity, F3.1 Volatile organic compounds (VOC), Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), F10.11 Voltage, A56.1 Volume ratio, compressors VRF. See Variable refrigerant flow (VRF) VRT. See Virgin rock temperature (VRT) Walls Warehouses, A3.8 Water Water heaters Water horsepower, pump, S44.7 Water/lithium bromide absorption Water-source heat pump (WSHP), S2.4; S49.10 Water systems, S13 |
| 761 | Water treatment, A49 Water vapor control, A44.6 Water vapor permeance/permeability, F26.16, 17 Water vapor retarders, F26.6 Water wells, A34.26 Weather data Welding sheet metal, S19.11 Wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT), heat stress, A31.5 Wheels, rotary enthalpy, S26.9 Whirlpools and spas Wien’s displacement law, F4.12 Wind. (See also Climate design information; Weather data) Wind chill index, F9.23 Windows. (See also Fenestration) Wind restraint design, A55.15 Wineries Wood construction, and moisture, F25.10 Wood products facilities, A26.1 Wood pulp, A26.2 Wood stoves, S34.5 World Wide Web (WWW), A40.8 WSHP. See Water-source heat pump (WSHP) WWW. See World Wide Web (WWW) Xenon, R47.18 |
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