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AWWA Manual M2 2001

AWWA Manual M2 2001

$89.92

AWWA Manual M2: Instrumentation And Control, Third Edition

Published By Publication Date Number of Pages
AWWA 2001 242
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2012-06-30

PDF Catalog

PDF Pages PDF Title
2 Instrumentation and Control
3 Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Hydraulics and Electricity 5
Chapter 3 Motor Controls 41
Chapter 4 Flowmeters 67
Chapter 5 Pressure, Level, Temperature, and Other Process Measurements 101
4 Chapter 6 Secondary Instrumentation 121
Chapter 7 Telemetry 131
Chapter 8 Final Control Elements 143
Chapter 9 Basics of Automatic Process Control 161
Chapter 10 Digital Control and Communication Systems 179
Chapter 11 Instrument Diagrams 199
5 Figures
11 Tables
13 Foreword
15 Acknowledgments
17 Chapter 1 Introduction
Automation: the replacement or elimination of intermediate components of a system or steps in a p…
Instrumentation: both the technology and installation of equipment to monitor and control operati…
The Water Utility System
19 How to Use This Manual
20 Reference
21 Chapter 2 Hydraulics and Electricity
Hydraulics
Properties of Liquids
22 Density of water.
Incompressibility.
Density and specific gravity.
Viscosity.
Hydrostatics
Hydrostatic pressure.
23 Figure 2-1 Pressure in a tank
Figure 2-2 Pressure in containers of various shapes
Effect of container shape on pressure.
Atmospheric pressure.
2,116 lb/ft2 (101.3 kPa), or
(2,116 lb/ft2)/(144 in.2/ft2) = 14.7 lb/in.2, or
(2,116 lb/ft2)/(62.4 lb/ft3) = 33.9 ft of water, or
(2,116 lb/ft2)/(848.6 lb/ft3)/(12 in./ft) = 29.9 in. of mercury.
Vacuum.
24 Figure 2-3 Water level in an unpressurized system
Figure 2-4 Fluid levels in a vacuum system
Summary of hydrostatics.
Hydrokinetics
Liquid flow.
25 Figure 2-5 Flow velocity as a function of cross-sectional area
Figure 2-6 Flow–velocity profiles
Figure 2-7 Determination of static pressure
Laminar and turbulent flow.
Measurements.
Energy and head.
26 Figure 2-8 Water in pipe with pressure, no flow
Elevation head: he .
Velocity head: hv .
(2-1)
27 Figure 2-9 Total head
Figure 2-10 Elevation head
28 Figure 2-11 Flowing without friction
Figure 2-12 Velocity head
(2-2)
29 (2-3)
Pressure head: hp .
Friction head: hf .
(2-4)
Total head: H.
Figure 2-13 Flowing with friction
30 (2-5)
Quantity flowing in straight pipe—no friction.
(2-6)
Velocity, v, in ft/sec (m/sec) (2-7)
(2-8)
(2-9)
(2-10)
Quantity flowing in straight pipe—with friction.
31 Figure 2-14 Flowing with friction
(2-11)
(2-12)
(2-13)
32 Figure 2-15 Mechanical leverage compared to hydraulic force
(2-14)
Hydrodynamics
Force in hydraulic systems.
20 psi = F/10 in.2
or 20 ¥ 10 = 200 lb of force
20 psi = F/20 in.2
or 400 lb of force
33 Figure 2-16 Hydraulic force
Figure 2-17 Differential areas
Energy and work.
34 Electricity
Basic Electricity
Physical—Electrons are forced out of atoms colliding with nearby atoms. When atoms on the surface…
35 Thermal—Heat is a form of energy, and when atoms are heated, their movement increases. Heat can c…
Magnetic—Magnetism is an electrical force that pushes or pulls charges. While magnetism does occu…
Chemical—Some chemical compositions (molecules) containing more than one type of atom can cause a…
Photovoltaic—The energy in light rays can cause free electrons. Common examples include the photo…
Conductors and insulators
Physical laws
36 (2-15)
(2-16)
1 watt = 1 volt ¥ 1 ampere (2-17)
1 calorie = 4.18 joules (2-18)
1 horsepower = 746 watts 1 hp = 550 ft-lb/sec (2-19)
37 Other factors
Distribution Concepts
38 Conductors
Utility service connection
39 Voltage levels
(2-20)
Three-phase power
Voltage conversion
40 Figure 2-18 Transformer symbol
Distribution
41 Figure 2-19a Delivery voltage at 480 VAC using electric utility’s transformer
Figure 2-19b Delivery voltage at 21,000 VAC using water utility’s transformer
42 Figure 2-20 Main substation with switchgear
43 Reliability
Safety
44 Figure 2-21 Complete one-line with load center and motors
45 Personnel hazards
DO NOT TOUCH a person who is being shocked, as the current will also shock you. The only way to h…
Fire hazards
46 Safety systems
Grounding.
47 Overcurrent and overtemperature.
48 Ground fault.
Encasement.
49 Power Factor
Reactance
(2-21)
50 (2-22)
(2-23)
Power Factor = PT /PA (2-24)
Inductance.
Capacitance.
(2-25)
51 Capacitors.
Capacitive motors.
Lightning and Surge Protection
52 Lightning protection
Air terminals.
Down conductors.
53 Grounding electrodes.
Surge protection
54 EMI signals
55 References
57 Chapter 3 Motor Controls
Introduction
Motors
58 Induction Motors
59 Figure 3-1 Induction motor rotors
60 Synchronous Motors
Single-Phase Motors
Split-phase motors.
Capacitor motors.
61 Shaded pole motors.
Motor Starting
Starting torque.
Starting current.
62 Motor Starters
Motor starter operation mechanisms.
63 Motor starter sizes.
Motor feeder protection.
Motor Starting Techniques
Full voltage (across the line).
Reduced voltage.
64 Bidirectional.
Multispeed.
Insulation Type and Service Factor
Insulation type.
Service factor.
65 Motor Disconnects
Variable Speed Motor Control
Variable Torque Transmission Systems
66 Eddy current clutches.
Liquid clutches.
Variable Speed Motor Control Systems
67 Wound-rotor motor controls.
Variable frequency controllers.
68 Motor Control Logic
69 Figure 3-2 Motor starter contactor coil
Figure 3-3 Motor starter circuit with one switch
70 Figure 3-4 Motor starter circuit with two switches
Figure 3-5 Maintained contact switch symbol
Figure 3-6 Momentary contact switch symbols
71 Figure 3-7 Momentary start switch circuit
Figure 3-8 Control relay coil symbol
Figure 3-9 Control relay contact symbols
72 Figure 3-10 Three-wire motor control circuit
73 Figure 3-11 Three-wire motor control circuit with two control locations
Figure 3-12 Ladder diagram with line numbers
Status Indicators
74 Figure 3-13 Status indicating light symbol
Figure 3-14 Motor circuit with indicating lights
Figure 3-15 Selector switch symbol
Local–Remote
75 Figure 3-16 Motor circuit with local–remote switch
Figure 3-17 Hand-off–auto switch
Automatic Control
76 Figure 3-18 HOA motor circuit
Figure 3-19 Float-operated level switch symbol (closes on rising level)
Figure 3-20 Float-operated level switch symbol (opens on rising level)
77 Figure 3-21 Automatic pump control off of a float switch
Figure 3-22 Three-wire control using two level switches
78 Interlocks
79 Figure 3-23 Three-wire control using two level switches with lock-out–stop switch
Motor Control Summary
80 Figure 3-24 Three-wire control using two level switches with lock-out–stop switch and a low- lev…
81 Figure 3-25 Electrical ladder diagram symbol legend
83 Chapter 4 Flowmeters
Meter Categories
84 Meter Coefficient of Discharge
85 Venturi Flowmeters
Figure 4-1 The Venturi tube
86 Figure 4-2 Venturi meter and flow tube
87 Installation
Maintenance
88 Figure 4-3 Troubleshooting guide for a differential pressure transducer
89 Advantages and Disadvantages
90 Modified Venturis
Flow Tubes
Insert Flow Tubes
Orifice Plate Flowmeters
91 Figure 4-4 Orifice plate
92 Installation
Maintenance
Advantages and Disadvantages
Magnetic Flowmeters
93 Figure 4-5 Magnetic flowmeter
94 Figure 4-6 Example of a troubleshooting flowchart
95 Installation
Maintenance
Electrode Cleaning
96 Advantages and Disadvantages
Turbine and Propeller Flowmeters
97 Figure 4-7 Propeller and turbine meters
98 Figure 4-8 Troubleshooting procedures for turbine meter
99 Installation
Maintenance
Advantages and Disadvantages
100 Sonic Flowmeters
Figure 4-9 Ultrasonic time-of-flight flowmeter
101 Installation
Maintenance
102 Advantages and Disadvantages
Vortex Flowmeters
103 Figure 4-10 Vortex flowmeter
Installation
104 Figure 4-11 Vortex flowmeter troubleshooting guide
105 Maintenance
Advantages and Disadvantages
Averaging Pitot Flowmeters
106 Figure 4-12 Averaging Pitot flowmeter insertion tube
Installation
107 Maintenance
Advantages and Disadvantages
108 Variable Area Flowmeters
Figure 4-13 Variable area flowmeter
109 Installation
Maintenance
Advantages and Disadvantages
110 Open Channel Flow
111 Figure 4-14 Common types of weirs
Weirs
112 Figure 4-15 Free flow over a weir
Advantages and Disadvantages
Flumes
113 Figure 4-16 Parshall flume
Advantages and Disadvantages
Palmer–Bowlus Flume
114 General Installation Precautions
Piping Configurations
Fittings
Flow Straighteners
Installation
115 Figure 4-17 Typical flow straighteners
Signal Output and Transport
Flowmeter Output
Signal Conditioning
116 Signal Enhancement
References
117 Chapter 5 Pressure, Level, Temperature, and Other Process Measurements
118 Pressure, Level, and Temperature
Pressure
119 Figure 5-1 Bourdon, bellows, and diaphragm pressure sensors
Figure 5-2 Typical LVDT application
120 Figure 5-3 Diaphragm seal
Figure 5-4 Variable capacitance pressure sensor
121 Level
Figure 5-5 Float-type, level-sensing system
122 Figure 5-6 Stage recorder
Figure 5-7 Bubbler
123 Figure 5-8 Admittance probe
124 Figure 5-9 Variable resistance level sensor
Figure 5-10 Ultrasonic level sensor
125 Figure 5-11 Typical temperature elements
Temperature
126 Figure 5-12 Thermowell
Electric Power and Equipment Status
Electric Power
127 Figure 5-13 Motor current sensor
128 Equipment Status Monitoring
Process Analyzers
Turbidity
129 Figure 5-14 Light scatter turbidity
pH
130 Figure 5-15 Surface scatter
Figure 5-16 pH system
131 Figure 5-17 Immersion and flow-through pH systems
Residual Chlorine
132 Figure 5-18 Chlorine membrane probe
133 Figure 5-19 Amperometric chlorine residual analyzer
Figure 5-20 CO2 buffering
Particle Counters
134 Figure 5-21 Particle counter
Figure 5-22 Streaming current monitor
Streaming Current Monitors
135 Miscellaneous Analyzers
General Considerations
References
137 Chapter 6 Secondary Instrumentation
Introduction
Signal Standardization
138 Signal Power and Transmission
140 Figure 6-1 Typical single compressor system
Transmitters
Controllers
141 Figure 6-2 Power supply
Figure 6-3 Basic controller
142 Figure 6-4 Analog indicator
Figure 6-5 Analog and digital indicator
Recording and Indicating Hardware
143 Figure 6-6 Circular recorder
Figure 6-7 Strip chart recorder
144 Function Modules
Integrator.
Multiply/divide.
Sum or differential.
Enhanced function modules.
145 Converters
147 Chapter 7 Telemetry
148 Figure 7-1 Telemetering
149 Analog Telemetry
Pulse Duration Telemetry
150 Figure 7-2 Typical digital telemetering system
151 Figure 7-3 Schematic of a typical PDM system
152 Pulse Frequency Telemetry
Variable Frequency Telemetry
153 Tone Multiplexing
Amplitude Modulation Tone
154 Frequency Shift Keying Tone
Communication Media and Channels
Copper Wiring
155 Telephone Lines
Fiber Optics
Radio Systems
156 Figure 7-4 Nomenclature of frequencies
157 Trunking Systems
Spread Spectrum Radio
Satellite Links
Cable TV
Hybrid System
158 Future Developments
Reference
159 Chapter 8 Final Control Elements
Signal conditioners.
Actuators.
Final elements.
160 Figure 8-1 Components of control
Valves
Signal Conditioners
Two-state.
Diverter valves.
Electric switching circuits.
161 Figure 8-2 Solenoid with cylinder actuator
Figure 8-3 Solenoid with details
Modulating service.
Pneumatic and hydraulic.
162 Figure 8-4 Single-phase motor
Electric.
163 Figure 8-5 Pneumatic positioner cut away
Figure 8-6 Electronic positioner circuitry
164 Figure 8-7a Rotary valve requires torque
Figure 8-7b Linear valve requires thrust
Valve Actuators
165 Figure 8-8 Piping configurations
Electric actuators.
Pneumatic and hydraulic actuators.
166 Valve Selection
167 Figure 8-9 Control characteristics
Figure 8-10 Butterfly valve
Butterfly valves.
Ball valves.
168 Cone valves.
Plug valves.
Gate valves.
Globe valves.
Figure 8-11 Plug valve
Figure 8-12 Gate valve
Figure 8-13 Globe valve
169 Sleeve valves.
Other Valve Considerations
Cavitation.
Feedback.
Failsafe.
Valve Summary
170 Pumping Systems
Speed Control
171 Variable speed drives.
Variable speed couplings.
Displacement Pumps
Piston pumps.
172 Diaphragm pumps.
Rotary displacement pumps.
Nondisplacement Pumps
Figure 8-14 Discharge pressure control via series valve
173 Figure 8-15 Discharge pressure control via bypass valve
Miscellaneous Final Control Elements
Chemical Conveyors
Chemical Feeders
174 Figure 8-16 Pneumatic conveying system
Figure 8-17 Chemical feed system (liquid)
175 Figure 8-18 Chemical feed system (dry)
Figure 8-19 Typical rotary paddle volumetric feeder
176 Figure 8-20 Screw-type volumetric feeder
Figure 8-21 Gravimetric feeder (belt type)
177 Chapter 9 Basics of Automatic Process Control
178 Figure 9-1 Generic control loop
Feedforward Control
179 Figure 9-2 Feedforward control of chlorine contact channel
Feedback Control
180 Figure 9-3 Feedback control of chlorine contact channel
Feedforward vs. Feedback Control
181 Manual vs. Automatic Control
182 Figure 9-4 Compound control of chlorine contact channel
Automatic Feedforward Control Methods
Timers and Event Counters
183 Function Modules
Ratio and Bias Controllers
(9-1)
184 Computers
Automatic Feedback Control Methods
On–Off Control
185 Figure 9-5 Generic feedback control timing graph
186 Figure 9-6a On–off control of a reservoir
Figure 9-6b On–off control timing graph
187 Figure 9-7a Gap-action control of a reservoir
Figure 9-7b Gap-action control timing graph
Proportional Control
188 Figure 9-8 Proportional control input/output relationship
189 Figure 9-9a Proportional control of a reservoir
Figure 9-9b Proportional control timing graph
190 Automatic Reset or Integral Control
191 Figure 9-10a Integral control of a reservoir
Figure 9-10b Integral control timing graph
192 Proportional-plus-Integral Control
Proportional-plus-Derivative (Rate) Control
193 Figure 9-11a Proportional-plus-derivative control of a reservoir
194 Figure 9-11b Proportional-plus-derivative control timing graph
Proportional-plus-Integral-plus-Derivative Control
References
195 Chapter 10 Digital Control and Communication Systems
196 Digital Control Systems
197 Figure 10-1 Digital control system
198 Computers
Central processing unit (CPU).
Main memory.
Mass memory.
Input/output system.
199 Computer Peripherals
200 Process I/O Concepts
Analog data
Digital data.
Pulse data.
201 Controllers
Programmable logic controllers.
A digitally operating electrical apparatus that uses a programmable memory for the internal stora…
Distributed control units (DCUs).
Remote terminal units (RTUs).
202 Smart field devices.
Software
Operating system.
Application software.
203 Figure 10-2 Operating system
204 Communication Systems
205 Digital Communication Concepts
Layers of communications.
Standards.
206 Figure 10-3 Layers of communications, LAN, WAN
Figure 10-4 Reference model for open system interconnection
207 Remote communications.
Networks.
208 Figure 10-5 Networks
Continuous polling.
Reports by exception.
209 High-speed networks.
Error detection/error correction.
Connectivity.
Communication media.
210 Applications and Site Planning
211 Site Planning
Control room.
212 Remote site
Technology Trends
213 References
215 Chapter 11 Instrument Diagrams
217 Figure 11-1 General instrument or function symbols
218 Figure 11-2 Function designations for relays
219 Figure 11-3 Standard instrument line symbols
221 Figure 11-4 Example of PI&D loop description
223 Glossary
231 Index
241 AWWA Manuals

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AWWA Manual M2 2001
$89.92