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NFPA 921 2021

NFPA 921 2021

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NFPA 921: Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations

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NFPA 2021
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Investigate fire origin and cause with increased confidence and accuracy with the latest criteria provided by NFPA 921. Investigation plays a critical role in determining and documenting the facts of a fire or explosion. NFPA 921, Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations, is the foremost resource for individuals with responsibilities investigating and analyzing such incidents. The guide provides insight into the scientific investigation methods used to formulate fact-based opinions on incident origin, cause, responsibility, prevention, and the damage and injuries which arise in such cases. NFPA 921 is recommended by the Organization of Scientific Area Committees (OSAC), a collaborative body of more than 600 forensic science practitioners and experts, as the forensic science consensus guide for fire investigations. Reference NFPA 921 for guidance in: Using the scientific method in origin and cause investigations Documenting an investigation so that all relevant facts are gathered for future use in court Handling fire-related evidence so that it’s admissible in court Understanding many of the terms related to explosion and fire investigations The 2021 edition marks some of the most substantial changes since the original publication of the document. The Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations offers the most complete and relevant industry information and practices. The publication features full-color images that convey core concepts and examples to provide you with deeper insight into fundamental investigation methodologies. Notable changes in the 2021 edition include: Relocation of fire pattern text found throughout NFPA 921 into Chapter 6 Restructured and rewritten Chapter 6, including the combination of fire patterns and arc-mapping as a single process of origin determination to account for the reclassification of arc mapping as a form of fire pattern analysis Deletion of Chapter 20, Classification of Fire Cause, and addition to Chapter 19, Fire Cause Determination, directing investigators to other standards should they need to classify the fire cause Revision and addition of text covering ignitable liquid detection canines (IGL canines) including training and certification Revised Chapter 14, Sources of Information, and substantial rewrite in relation to non-scene data Make sure you are complying with the most current NFPA 921 guidance to help support your opinions and avoid challenges to the validity of your investigations.

PDF Catalog

PDF Pages PDF Title
1 Copyright
Edition
Origin and Development
2 Committee Lists for NFPA-921-2021
6 Chapter 1 : Administration
1.1 Scope.
7 1.1.1
1.1.2
1.2 Purpose. 1.2.1
1.2.2
1.3 Application.
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.5
1.4 Units of Measure.
9 1.5 Measurement Uncertainty.
Chapter 2 : Referenced Publications
2.1 General.
2.2 NFPA Publications.
11 2.3 Other Publications. 2.3.1 ABYC Publications.
2.3.2 ANSI Publications.
2.3.3 API Publications.
2.3.4 ASME Publications.
2.3.5 ASTM Publications.
13 2.3.6 FM Publications.
2.3.7 Military Specifications.
2.3.8 SAE Publications.
2.3.9 SFPE Publications.
2.3.10 UL Publications.
2.3.11 USFA Publication.
14 2.3.12 U.S. Government Publications.
2.3.13 Other Publications.
16 2.4 References for Extracts in Advisory Sections.
Chapter 3 : Definitions
3.1 General.
17 3.2 NFPA Official Definitions. 3.2.1 * Approved.
3.2.2 * Code.
3.2.3 * Guide.
3.2.4 * Recommended Practice.
3.2.5 * Standard.
3.3 General Definitions. 3.3.1 * Absolute Temperature.
3.3.2 Accelerant.
3.3.3 Accident.
3.3.4 Active Fire Protection System.
3.3.5 Ambient.
3.3.6 Ampacity.
3.3.7 Ampere.
3.3.8 Arc.
18 3.3.9 Arc Mapping.
3.3.10 Arc Melting.
3.3.11 Arc Site.
3.3.12 Arcing Through Char.
3.3.13 Area of Origin.
3.3.14 Arrow Pattern.
3.3.15 Arson.
3.3.16 Autoignition.
3.3.17 Autoignition Temperature.
3.3.18 Backdraft.
3.3.19 Bead.
3.3.20 Blast Pressure Front.
3.3.21 BLEVE.
3.3.22 Bonding.
3.3.23 British Thermal Unit (Btu).
3.3.24 Burning Rate.
3.3.25 * Calcination of Gypsum.
3.3.26 Calorie.
19 3.3.27 Cause.
3.3.28 Ceiling Jet.
3.3.29 Char.
3.3.30 Char Blisters.
3.3.31 Clean Burn.
3.3.32 * Combustible.
3.3.33 * Combustible Gas Indicator.
3.3.34 Combustible Liquid.
3.3.35 Combustion.
3.3.36 Combustion Products.
3.3.37 Competent Ignition Source.
3.3.38 Conduction.
3.3.39 Convection.
3.3.40 Creep.
3.3.41 Current.
3.3.42 Data Analysis.
3.3.43 Deductive Reasoning.
3.3.44 Deflagration.
20 3.3.45 Density.
3.3.46 Detection.
3.3.47 Detonation.
3.3.48 Diffuse Fuel.
3.3.49 Diffusion Flame.
3.3.50 Drop Down.
3.3.51 Effective Fire Temperatures.
3.3.52 Electric Spark.
3.3.53 Electronically Stored Information (ESI).
3.3.54 * Empirical Data.
3.3.55 Energy.
3.3.56 Entrainment.
3.3.57 Explosible.
3.3.58 Explosion.
3.3.59 Explosion Dynamics.
3.3.60 Explosive.
21 3.3.61 Explosive Material.
3.3.62 Exposed Surface.
3.3.63 Extinguish.
3.3.64 Failure.
3.3.65 Failure Analysis.
3.3.66 Fall Down.
3.3.67 Finish Rating.
3.3.68 Fire.
3.3.69 Fire Analysis.
3.3.70 Fire Area.
3.3.71 Fire Cause.
3.3.72 * Fire Chemistry.
3.3.73 * Fire Dynamics.
3.3.74 Fire Effects.
3.3.75 Fire Hazard.
3.3.76 Fire Investigation.
3.3.77 * Fire Investigator.
22 3.3.78 Fire Patterns.
3.3.79 Fire Propagation.
3.3.80 Fire Scene Reconstruction.
3.3.81 * Fire Science.
3.3.82 Fire Spread.
3.3.83 First Fuel Ignited.
3.3.84 Flame.
3.3.85 Flame Front.
3.3.86 Flameover.
3.3.87 Flammable.
3.3.88 Flammable Limit.
3.3.89 Flammable Liquid.
3.3.90 Flammable Range.
3.3.91 Flash Fire.
3.3.92 Flash Point of a Liquid.
3.3.93 Flashover.
23 3.3.94 Forensic (Forensic Science).
3.3.95 Fuel.
3.3.96 Fuel Gas.
3.3.97 Fuel Load.
3.3.98 Fuel-Controlled Fire.
3.3.99 * Full Room Involvement.
3.3.100 Gas.
3.3.101 Glowing Combustion.
3.3.102 Ground.
3.3.103 Ground Fault.
3.3.104 Hazard.
3.3.105 Hazardous Material.
3.3.106 * Heat.
3.3.107 Heat and Flame Vector.
3.3.108 Heat Flux.
3.3.109 * Heat of Ignition.
3.3.110 * Heat Release Rate (HRR).
24 3.3.111 Heat Transfer.
3.3.112 High Explosive.
3.3.113 High-Order Damage.
3.3.114 * Hybrid Mixture.
3.3.115 Hypergolic Material.
3.3.116 * Ignitible Liquid.
3.3.117 Ignition.
3.3.118 Ignition Energy.
3.3.119 * Ignition Temperature.
3.3.120 Ignition Time.
3.3.121 Incendiary Fire.
3.3.122 Inductive Reasoning.
3.3.123 Interested Party.
3.3.124 Investigative Team.
3.3.125 Isochar.
3.3.126 Joule.
3.3.127 Kilowatt.
25 3.3.128 Kindling Temperature.
3.3.129 Layering.
3.3.130 Lines of Demarcation.
3.3.131 Low Explosive.
3.3.132 Low-Order Damage.
3.3.133 Material First Ignited.
3.3.134 Minimum Explosible Concentration (MEC).
3.3.135 Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE).
3.3.136 * Noncombustible Material.
3.3.137 Nonflammable.
3.3.138 Non-Scene Data.
3.3.139 Ohm.
3.3.140 Origin.
3.3.141 Overcurrent.
3.3.142 Overhaul.
3.3.143 * Overload.
3.3.144 Oxygen Deficiency.
3.3.145 Passive Fire Protection System.
26 3.3.146 Piloted Ignition Temperature.
3.3.147 * Plastic.
3.3.148 Plume.
3.3.149 Point of Origin.
3.3.150 Power.
3.3.151 Premixed Flame.
3.3.152 Preservation.
3.3.153 Print Data.
3.3.154 Products of Combustion.
3.3.155 Protocol.
3.3.156 Proximate Cause.
3.3.157 Pyrolysate.
3.3.158 Pyrolysis.
3.3.159 Pyrophoric Material.
3.3.160 Radiant Heat.
3.3.161 Radiation.
3.3.162 Rekindle.
27 3.3.163 Responsibility.
3.3.164 Risk.
3.3.165 Rollover.
3.3.166 Scene.
3.3.167 Scientific Method.
3.3.168 Seat of Explosion.
3.3.169 Seated Explosion.
3.3.170 Secondary Explosion.
3.3.171 Self-Heating.
3.3.172 Self-Ignition.
3.3.173 Self-Ignition Temperature.
3.3.174 Sever Arc.
3.3.175 Short Circuit.
3.3.176 Site.
3.3.177 Smoke.
3.3.178 Smoke Condensate.
3.3.179 Smoke Explosion.
28 3.3.180 Smoldering.
3.3.181 Soot.
3.3.182 Spalling.
3.3.183 Spark.
3.3.184 Specific Gravity (of a gas or vapor).
3.3.185 Specific Gravity (of a liquid or solid).
3.3.186 Spoliation.
3.3.187 * Spontaneous Heating.
3.3.188 Spontaneous Ignition.
3.3.189 Suppression.
3.3.190 Target Fuel.
3.3.191 * Temperature.
3.3.192 Thermal Column.
3.3.193 * Thermal Expansion.
3.3.194 Thermal Inertia.
3.3.195 Thermodynamics.
3.3.196 Thermometry.
3.3.197 Thermoplastic.
3.3.198 Thermoset Plastics.
29 3.3.199 Time Line.
3.3.200 Total Burn.
3.3.201 Trailer.
3.3.202 Understanding or Agreement.
3.3.203 Upper Layer.
3.3.204 Vapor.
3.3.205 Vent.
3.3.206 Ventilation.
3.3.207 Ventilation-Controlled Fire.
3.3.208 Venting.
3.3.209 Volt (V).
3.3.210 Watt (W).
3.3.211 Work Plans.
3.4 * Canine Definitions.
3.4.1 Canine-Handler Team.
3.4.2 * Certification.
30 3.4.3 Handler.
3.4.4 * Ignitible Liquid Detection Canines (IGL Canines).
3.4.5 * Scent Discrimination.
Chapter 4 : Basic Methodology
4.1 * Nature of Fire Investigations.
4.2 Systematic Approach.
4.3 Relating Fire Investigation to the Scientific Method.
31 4.3.1 Recognize the Need.
4.3.2 Define the Problem.
32 4.3.3 Collect Data.
4.3.4 * Analyze the Data.
4.3.5 * Develop Hypotheses (Inductive Reasoning).
4.3.6 * Test the Hypotheses (Deductive Reasoning).
4.3.6.1 *
4.3.7 Select Final Hypothesis.
4.3.8 Avoid Presumption.
4.3.9 Expectation Bias.
33 4.3.10 * Confirmation Bias.
4.4 Basic Method of a Fire Investigation.
4.4.1 Receiving the Assignment.
4.4.2 Preparing for the Investigation.
4.4.3 Conducting the Investigation. 4.4.3.1
4.4.3.2
4.4.3.3
4.4.3.4
4.4.4 Collecting and Preserving Evidence.
4.4.5 Analyzing the Incident.
34 4.4.6 Conclusions.
4.5 Level of Certainty.
4.5.1
4.5.2
4.5.3 Expert Opinions.
4.6 Review Procedure.
4.6.1 Administrative Review.
4.6.1.1 Limitations of Administrative Reviews.
4.6.2 Technical Review.
4.6.2.1 Limitations of Technical Reviews.
35 4.6.3 Peer Review.
4.6.3.1
4.6.3.2 Limitations of Peer Reviews.
4.7 Reporting Procedure.
Chapter 5 : Basic Fire Science
5.1 Introduction.
5.1.1 * Fire and Energy.
5.1.2 Energy.
5.1.3 Power.
5.1.4 Heat Flux.
36 5.1.5 Fire Tetrahedron.
5.1.5.1.1
5.1.5.1.2
5.1.5.1.3
5.1.5.2 Oxidizing Agent.
5.1.5.2.1
37 5.1.5.2.2
5.1.5.3 Heat.
5.1.5.4 Uninhibited Chemical Chain Reaction.
5.2 Chemistry. 5.2.1 Phase Changes and Thermal Decomposition.
38 5.2.1.1
5.2.1.2
5.2.2 Combustion.
5.2.2.1
39 5.2.2.2 Gaseous Fuels.
5.2.2.2.1 Flammable/Explosive Range.
5.2.2.2.2 Lower Explosive Limit (Lower Flammable Limit).
5.2.2.2.3 Upper Explosive Limit (Upper Flammability Limit).
5.2.2.2.4
5.2.2.2.5
5.2.2.3
5.2.2.4 *
5.2.2.5
5.3 * Products of Combustion. 5.3.1
40 5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5
5.3.6
5.3.7
5.3.8
5.3.9
5.4 * Fluid Flows. 5.4.1 General.
5.4.2 Buoyant Flows.
5.4.3 Fire Plumes.
5.4.4 Ceiling Jets.
41 5.4.5 Vent Flows.
5.5 * Heat Transfer. 5.5.1 General.
5.5.1.1
5.5.1.2
5.5.1.3
5.5.2 Conduction.
5.5.2.1
5.5.2.2 *
42 5.5.2.3 Thermal Inertia.
5.5.2.4 3 2 2 4
43 5.5.2.5
5.5.2.6
5.5.3 Convection.
5.5.3.1
5.5.3.2
5.5.3.3
5.5.4 Radiation.
5.5.4.1
44 5.5.4.2
2
45 5.5.5 * Thermometry.
5.5.5.1
5.5.5.2 Empirical Temperature Scales.
5.5.5.2.1 Fahrenheit.
46 5.5.5.2.2 Celsius (Centigrade).
5.5.5.2.2.1
5.5.5.3 Thermodynamic (Absolute) Temperature Scales.
5.5.5.3.1
5.5.5.3.2
5.5.5.3.3
5.5.5.3.4 *
47 5.6 * Fuel Load, Fuel Packages, and Properties of Flames.
5.6.1 Fuel Load. 5.6.1.1
5.6.1.2
5.6.1.3
5.6.2 Fuel Items and Fuel Package. 5.6.2.1
5.6.2.2
5.6.3 Heat Release Rate. 5.6.3.1 General.
50 5.6.3.1.1
5.6.3.1.2
5.6.3.2 * Compartment Fires.
5.6.3.2.1
51 5.6.3.3 Liquid Fuel Fires.
5.6.3.3.1 * Confined Liquid Fuel Fires.
52 5.6.3.3.2 * Unconfined Liquid Fuel Fires.
5.6.3.3.3 * Unconfined Liquid Fuel Fires on Carpet.
5.6.4 Properties of Flames.
5.6.4.1 Color of Flame.
5.6.4.2
5.6.4.3
5.6.4.4
5.6.4.5 Flame Height.
53 5.6.4.6 * Fuel Package Location. 5.6.4.6.1 Air Entrainment.
5.6.4.6.2 Flame and Plume Attachment.
5.6.4.6.3 Effect of Reduced Air Entrainment.
5.6.4.6.3.1 Plume and Upper Layer Temperatures.
5.6.4.6.3.2 Flame Height.
5.6.4.6.4 Effect of Walls.
55 5.6.4.6.7 Outdoor Fires.
5.6.4.7 *
56 5.6.4.8
5.6.5 Thermal Structure of a Flame. 5.6.5.1 Continuous Flaming Region.
57 5.6.5.2 Intermittent Flame Region.
5.6.5.3 Plume Region.
5.6.6 Heat Fluxes from Flames.
5.6.6.1 Heat Fluxes from Flames to Contacted Surfaces. 5.6.6.1.1 Walls.
59 5.6.6.1.2 Ceilings.
60 5.6.6.2 * Heat Fluxes from Flames to Remote Surfaces.
62 5.7.1 General.
5.7.1.1
63 5.7.2 Ignition of Flammable Gases. 5.7.2.1
5.7.2.2
5.7.3 Ignition of Liquids.
64 5.7.3.1 Flashpoint.
5.7.3.2
5.7.3.3
5.7.3.4
5.7.3.5
5.7.4 Ignition of Solids.
5.7.4.1 Smoldering Ignition and Initiation of Solid Phase Burning. 5.7.4.1.1 General.
5.7.4.1.1.1
5.7.4.1.1.2
5.7.4.1.1.3
5.7.4.1.1.4
65 5.7.4.1.1.5
5.7.4.1.1.6
5.7.4.1.1.7
5.7.4.1.2 Self-Heating and Self-Ignition. 5.7.4.1.2.1
5.7.4.1.2.2
5.7.4.1.2.3
5.7.4.1.2.4
5.7.4.1.3 Mechanism of Self-Heating to Ignition.
5.7.4.1.3.1
66 5.7.4.1.3.2
5.7.4.1.3.3
5.7.4.1.3.5
67 5.7.4.1.3.6
5.7.4.1.3.7
5.7.4.1.3.8
5.7.4.1.3.9 * Wood Ignition.
5.7.4.1.3.10 * Charcoal Briquettes.
5.7.4.1.3.11 * Contaminants.
5.7.4.1.4 * Common Materials Subject to Self-Heating. 5.7.4.1.4.1
5.7.4.1.4.2
5.7.4.1.5 Oxidizer Fires.
68 5.7.4.1.6 Pyrophoric Materials.
5.7.4.1.7 Transition to Flaming Combustion. 5.7.4.1.7.1
5.7.4.1.7.2 *
5.7.4.1.7.3
5.7.4.2 Piloted Flaming Ignition of Solid Fuels.
5.7.4.2.1 *
5.7.4.2.2
5.7.4.2.3
5.7.4.2.4
69 5.7.4.2.5
5.7.4.3 * Flaming Autoignition of Solids.
5.8 * Flame Spread. 5.8.1 General.
5.8.1.2 Concurrent Flame Spread.
70 5.8.1.3 Fire Spread on Sloped Surfaces.
71 5.8.2.2 Liquid Phase Flame Spread.
72 5.8.2.3 Gas Phase Flame Spread.
5.8.3 Flame Spread on Solids. 5.8.3.1
5.8.3.2 Counterflow Flame Spread on Thin Fuels.
5.8.3.3 Concurrent Flame Spread on Thin Fuels.
5.8.3.4 * Counterflow Flame Spread on Thick Fuels.
73 5.8.3.6 Role of Melting and Dripping in Flame Spread.
74 5.8.3.7 Role of External Heating on Flame Spread.
5.9 * Fire Spread in a Compartment. 5.9.1
5.9.2 Fire Spread.
5.9.2.1 Fire Spread by Flame Impingement.
5.9.2.2 Fire Spread by Remote Ignition.
5.9.2.2.1
5.9.2.2.2
5.10 Compartment Fire Development.
75 5.10.1 General. 5.10.1.1
5.10.1.2
5.10.1.3
5.10.1.4
5.10.2 Compartment Fire Phenomena. 5.10.2.1
76 5.10.2.3
77 5.10.2.5
5.10.2.6
78 5.10.2.8
5.10.3 Compartment Vent Flows. 5.10.3.1
5.10.3.2
5.10.3.3 Single Opening Flows. 5.10.3.3.1
5.10.3.3.2
5.10.3.3.3
79 5.10.3.3.4
5.10.3.4 Multiple Opening Flows. 5.10.3.4.1
5.10.3.4.2
5.10.3.4.3
5.10.3.5 Vent Openings. 5.10.3.5.1
5.10.4 Flashover. 5.10.4.1
5.10.4.2
5.10.4.3
5.10.4.4 Ventilation Opening.
80 5.10.4.5 *
5.10.4.5.1
5.10.4.6
5.10.5 Fully Developed Compartment Fires.
5.10.6 Effects of Enclosures on Fire Growth.
5.10.6.1 Room Volume and Ceiling Height.
5.10.6.2 * Location of the Fire in the Compartment.
5.11 Fire Spread Between Compartments.
5.11.1 Fire Spread via Openings.
81 5.11.2 Fire Spread via Barriers.
5.12 Paths of Smoke Spread in Buildings.
Chapter 6 : Fire Effects and Fire Patterns
6.1 Introduction. 6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.3
6.1.4
6.1.5
82 6.2 Observations.
6.2.1 Fire Effects.
83 6.2.1.1 Deformation.
6.2.1.2 Deposition.
6.2.1.3 Discoloration.
6.2.1.4 Mass Loss.
6.2.2 Characteristics and Context of Fire Effects.
6.2.2.1
6.2.2.2
6.2.2.3
84 6.2.2.4
6.3 Analysis of Observations.
6.3.1 Introduction.
6.3.1.1
6.3.1.2
6.3.1.3
6.3.1.4
6.3.1.5
85 6.3.1.5.1
6.3.1.5.2
6.3.1.6
6.3.1.7
6.3.2 Char. 6.3.2.1 Char Observations.
6.3.2.2 Material Sciences — Surface Effect of Char.
6.3.2.3 Pyrolysis.
6.3.2.4 Analysis of Char.
86 6.3.2.5 Depth of Char Diagram.
6.3.2.6 Measuring Depth of Char.
87 6.3.2.9 Depth of Char Surveys with Fuel Gases.
6.3.2.10 Appearance of Char.
88 6.3.2.11 * Limitations with Char.
6.3.2.12 Rate of Wood Charring.
6.3.2.13
6.3.2.14
6.3.2.15
6.3.3 * Clean Burn.
89 6.3.3.1 Clean Burn Observations.
6.3.3.2 Material Sciences Related to Clean Burn.
91 6.3.3.4 Limitations.
6.3.4 * Color Change. 6.3.4.1 Color Changes Observations.
6.3.4.2 Material Sciences Related to Color Changes.
6.3.4.3 Fabric Dyes.
6.3.4.4 Light.
6.3.4.5 Analysis of Color Changes.
6.3.4.6 Limitations.
6.3.5 * Deposition of Smoke on Surfaces. 6.3.5.1 Deposition of Smoke on Surfaces Observations.
92 6.3.5.2 Smoke Characteristics.
6.3.5.3 Material Sciences for Deposition of Smoke.
6.3.5.4 Analysis Related to Deposition of Smoke on Surfaces.
6.3.5.5
6.3.5.6
93 6.3.5.7 Limitations.
6.3.6 Distorted Lightbulbs. 6.3.6.1 Observations for Distorted Lightbulbs.
6.3.6.2 Material Science for Distorted Lightbulbs.
94 6.3.6.4 Limitations.
6.3.7 Furniture Springs. 6.3.7.1 Furniture Springs Observations.
6.3.7.2 Material Science Related to Furniture Springs.
95 6.3.7.3 Analysis of Furniture Springs.
6.3.7.4 * Limitations.
6.3.8 * Gypsum Wallboard. 6.3.8.1 * Gypsum Wallboard Observations.
96 6.3.8.2 Material Science related to Gypsum Wallboard.
6.3.8.3 Analysis of Gypsum Wallboard.
6.3.8.4 * Mass Loss and Density.
6.3.8.5 General Indications of Calcination.
6.3.8.6 Depth of Calcination Survey.
6.3.8.7 Depth of Calcination Diagram.
6.3.8.8 * Measuring Depth of Calcination.
97 6.3.9.2 Fire-Damaged Materials and Exemplar Materials.
98 6.3.9.4 Analysis of Mass Loss Observations.
6.3.9.5 Limitations.
100 6.3.10 Melting of Materials. 6.3.10.1 Melting Observations.
6.3.10.2 Material Science Related to Melting.
101 6.3.10.3 Common Metals.
6.3.10.4 Thermoplastics.
102 6.3.10.6 * Alloying of Metals.
103 6.3.10.6.1 *
6.3.10.6.2
6.3.10.8 Limitations.
6.3.11 Oxidation. 6.3.11.1 Observations.
104 6.3.11.2
6.3.11.3
105 6.3.11.4 *
6.3.11.5
6.3.11.6
106 6.3.11.7
6.3.11.8 * Materials Science Related to Oxidation.
6.3.11.9 Analysis of Oxidation Observations.
6.3.11.10 * Limitations.
6.3.12 Rainbow Effect. 6.3.12.1 Rainbow Effect Observations.
6.3.12.2 Material Science for Rainbow Effects.
6.3.12.3 Analysis of Rainbow Effect.
6.3.12.4 Limitations.
6.3.13 Smoke Alarms — Enhanced Soot Deposition, or Acoustic Soot Agglomeration. 6.3.13.1 Smoke Alarm Observations.
6.3.13.2 * Enhanced Soot Deposition, or Acoustic Agglomeration.
6.3.13.3 Analysis of Smoke Alarms.
108 6.3.13.4.1
6.3.13.4.2
6.3.14 * Spalling. 6.3.14.1 Observations.
6.3.14.2 *
6.3.14.3 Analysis for Spalling. 6.3.14.3.1 Fire-Related Spalling.
6.3.14.3.1 Spalled Concrete Floor.
109 6.3.14.3.2 *
6.3.14.3.3 *
110 6.3.14.4 Limitations.
6.3.15 * Thermal Expansion and Deformation of Materials. 6.3.15.1 Observations of Thermal Expansion and Deformation of Materials
6.3.15.2 Material Science of Thermal Expansion and Deformation of Materials.
6.3.15.3
6.3.15.5 Analysis of Thermal Expansion and Deformation.
111 6.3.15.6
6.3.15.7
6.3.15.8 Limitations.
6.3.15.9
6.3.16 * Victim Injuries. 6.3.16.1 Victim Injuries Observations.
6.3.16.2 Material Science of Victim Injuries.
112 6.3.16.3
6.3.16.4
6.3.16.5 Analysis of Victim Injuries.
6.3.16.6 Limitations.
6.3.17 * Window Glass. 6.3.17.1 Window Glass Observations.
6.3.17.2 Material Science of Glass. 6.3.17.2.1 Breaking of Glass.
6.3.17.2.2
6.3.17.2.3
6.3.17.3 Tempered Glass. 6.3.17.3.1
6.3.17.3.2
6.3.17.4 Analysis of Glass. 6.3.17.4.1
113 6.3.17.4.2
6.3.17.4.3
6.3.17.4.4
6.3.17.4.5
6.3.17.5 Limitations.
6.3.17.5.1
6.3.17.5.2
114 6.3.17.5.3
6.3.18.1 Introduction.
6.3.18.1.1
6.3.18.1.2 Dynamics of Pattern Production.
6.3.18.1.3 Lines or Areas of Demarcation.
115 6.3.18.1.4 Production of Lines or Areas of Demarcation.
6.3.18.1.5 Observations.
6.3.18.1.6 Causes of Lines or Areas of Demarcation.
6.3.18.2 Locations of Patterns.
116 6.3.18.2.1 Walls and Ceilings.
6.3.18.2.2 Walls.
6.3.18.2.2.1
117 6.3.18.2.3.1
6.3.18.2.3.2
6.3.18.2.3.3
6.3.18.2.4 Floors.
6.3.18.2.4.1
6.3.18.2.4.2 *
6.3.18.2.4.3
6.3.18.2.4.4
6.3.18.2.4.5
6.3.18.2.4.6
6.3.18.2.4.7
118 6.3.18.2.4.8
6.3.18.2.5 Outside Surfaces.
6.3.18.2.6 Drop Down (Fall Down).
6.3.18.3 Location of Objects.
6.3.18.3.1 Heat Shadowing.
119 6.3.18.3.2 Heat Shadowing Observations.
6.3.18.3.3 Protected Areas.
122 6.3.18.4 Penetrations of Horizontal Surfaces.
6.3.18.4.1
6.3.18.4.2 *
6.3.18.4.3
123 6.3.18.4.4
6.3.18.5 Depth of Char Patterns with Fuel Gases.
6.3.19 Fire Pattern Generation.
6.3.19.1 * Plume-Generated Patterns.
6.3.19.1.1
6.3.19.1.2
124 6.3.19.1.3
6.3.19.1.5 *
125 6.3.19.2 Ventilation-Generated Patterns.
6.3.19.2.1
6.3.19.2.2
127 6.3.19.2.4
6.3.19.2.6
6.3.19.2.7
6.3.19.3 Hot Gas Layer–Generated Patterns.
129 6.3.19.3.2
130 6.3.19.4 Full Room Involvement–Generated Patterns.
6.3.19.5 Suppression-Generated Patterns.
132 6.3.19.6 Undetermined-Generated Patterns.
6.3.20 Fire Pattern Geometry.
133 6.3.20.1 V Patterns on Vertical Surfaces. 6.3.20.1.1 Observations of V Patterns on Vertical Surfaces.
134 6.3.20.1.2.1
135 6.3.20.1.3 Limitations.
6.3.20.1.4
6.3.20.2 Inverted Cone (Triangular) Patterns. 6.3.20.2.1 Observations of Inverted Cone (Triangular) Patterns.
137 6.3.20.2.2 Fire Dynamics of Inverted Cone Patterns.
6.3.20.2.3 Inverted Cone Patterns with Natural Gas.
138 6.3.20.2.4 Limitations.
6.3.20.3 Hourglass Patterns.
139 6.3.20.4 U-Shaped Patterns.
140 6.3.20.6 Truncated Cone Patterns.
142 6.3.20.6.1
6.3.20.7 Irregular Patterns.
143 6.3.20.7.2
6.3.20.7.3
147 6.3.20.7.5 Limitations.
148 6.3.20.7.6
150 6.3.20.9.1 Trailers.
151 6.3.20.9.2 Protected Floor Areas.
6.3.20.9.3 Fuel Gas Jets.
6.3.20.9.4 Limitations.
6.3.20.10 Area Patterns.
6.3.20.10.1 Flashover and Full Room Involvement.
6.3.20.10.2 Flash Fires.
152 6.3.20.10.2.1
6.3.20.10.2.2
153 6.3.20.10.2.3 Saddle Burns.
154 6.3.21 Arc Mapping.
6.3.21.1 Interpretation of Arc Damage.
6.3.21.2
6.3.21.3
6.3.21.3.1
6.3.21.4
155 6.3.21.5
6.3.21.6 Multiple Arc Sites on One Circuit.
6.3.21.6.1
6.3.21.6.2
6.3.21.7 *
6.3.21.8
6.3.21.9
6.3.21.10 * Arc Mapping Procedure. 6.3.21.10.1
6.3.21.10.1.1
6.3.21.10.2
6.3.21.10.3 Locating Arc Marks. 6.3.21.10.3.1
156 6.3.21.10.3.2
6.3.21.10.3.3
6.3.21.10.3.4
6.3.21.10.3.5
6.3.21.10.3.6
6.3.21.10.4 Documenting the Damage. 6.3.21.10.4.1
6.3.21.10.4.2
6.3.21.10.4.3
157 6.3.21.10.4.4
6.3.21.10.4.5
6.3.21.10.4.6
6.3.21.10.4.7
6.3.21.10.4.8
6.3.22 Pointer and Arrow Patterns.
158 6.3.22.2
6.4 Fire Pattern Analysis.
6.4.1 Types of Fire Patterns.
6.4.1.1 Fire Spread (Movement) Patterns.
6.4.1.2 Heat (Intensity) Patterns.
6.4.1.2.1
6.4.1.3 Combination of Patterns.
Chapter 7 : Building Systems
159 7.1 * Introduction.
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.2 Features of Design, Construction, and Structural Elements in Evaluating Fire Development. 7.2.1 General.
7.2.1.1
7.2.1.2
7.2.2 Building Design. 7.2.2.1 General.
7.2.2.1.1
7.2.2.1.2
7.2.2.1.3
160 7.2.2.2 Building Loads.
7.2.2.3 Room Size. 7.2.2.3.1
7.2.2.3.2
7.2.2.4 Compartmentation. 7.2.2.4.1
7.2.2.4.2
7.2.2.5 Concealed and Interstitial Spaces.
7.2.2.5.1
7.2.2.5.2
161 7.2.2.6 Planned Design as Compared to “As-Built” Condition.
7.2.2.6.1
7.2.3 Materials.
7.2.3.1 Ignitibility.
7.2.3.2 Flammability.
7.2.3.3 Thermal Inertia.
7.2.3.4 Thermal Conductivity.
7.2.3.5 Toxicity.
7.2.3.6 Physical State and Heat Resistance.
7.2.3.6.1
7.2.3.6.2
7.2.3.7 Orientation, Position, and Placement. 7.2.3.7.1
162 7.2.3.7.2
7.2.4 Occupancy.
7.2.5 Computer Fire Model Survey of Building Component Variations.
7.2.6 Explosion Damage. 7.2.6.1
7.2.6.2
7.3 Types of Construction. 7.3.1 General. 7.3.1.1
7.3.1.2
7.3.2 Wood Frame.
163 7.3.2.1 Platform Frame Construction. 7.3.2.1.1
7.3.2.1.2
7.3.2.2 Balloon Frame. 7.3.2.2.1
7.3.2.2.2
7.3.2.3 Plank and Beam. 7.3.2.3.1
7.3.2.3.2
164 7.3.2.4 Post and Frame.
7.3.2.5 Heavy Timber.
7.3.2.5.1
7.3.2.5.2
7.3.2.6 Alternative Residential Construction.
7.3.2.6.1 Manufactured Homes (Mobile Homes).
165 7.3.2.6.2 Modular Homes.
7.3.2.6.3 Steel Frame Residential Construction.
7.3.2.7 Manufactured Wood Structural Elements.
7.3.2.7.1
7.3.2.7.2
7.3.3 Ordinary Construction. 7.3.3.1
7.3.3.2
7.3.4 Mill Construction.
166 7.3.5 Noncombustible Construction. 7.3.5.1 General. 7.3.5.1.1
7.3.5.1.2
7.3.5.2 Metal Construction.
7.3.5.2.1
7.3.5.2.2
7.3.5.2.3
7.3.5.3 Concrete or Masonry Construction.
7.3.5.3.1
7.3.5.3.2
167 7.4 Construction Assemblies. 7.4.1 General.
7.4.1.1
7.4.1.2
7.4.1.3
7.4.1.4
7.4.2 Floor/Ceiling/Roof Assemblies.
7.4.2.1
7.4.2.2
7.4.3 Walls.
7.4.3.1
7.4.3.2
7.4.3.3
7.4.3.4
168 7.4.3.5
7.4.3.6
7.4.3.7
7.4.4 Doors.
7.4.5 Concealed Spaces.
7.5 * Construction Materials. 7.5.1 Structural Steel.
7.5.1.1 Encasement.
7.5.1.2 Surface Treatment.
169 7.5.1.3 Spray-On Fireproofing.
7.5.1.4 Intumescent Coatings.
7.5.1.5 Filling.
7.5.2 Reinforced Concrete.
7.5.3 Wood.
7.6 Impact of Passive Fire Protection Systems on Investigation. 7.6.1
7.6.2 Analysis of Structural Damage.
7.7 Design and Installation Parameters of the System. 7.7.1
7.7.2
7.7.2.1
7.7.2.2
7.7.2.3
170 7.7.2.4
7.7.3
7.7.4
7.7.4.1
7.7.4.2
7.7.4.3
7.7.4.4
7.7.5
7.8 Documentation and Data Collection. 7.8.1
7.8.2
7.8.3
7.8.4
7.8.5
171 7.8.5.1
7.8.6
7.8.7
7.8.8
7.9 Analysis. 7.9.1 Code Analysis. 7.9.1.1
7.9.1.2
7.9.1.3
7.9.1.3.1 Type of Construction.
7.9.1.3.2 Fire-Resistance Rated Construction.
7.9.1.4
7.9.1.5
172 7.9.1.6
7.9.2 Design Analysis. 7.9.2.1
7.9.3 Installation Analysis. 7.9.3.1
7.9.4 System Performance. 7.9.4.1
7.9.5 Testing and Maintenance Analysis. 7.9.5.1
7.9.6 Origin and Cause Determination. 7.9.6.1
7.9.6.2 Analysis of Structural Damage. 7.9.6.2.1 Penetrations.
7.9.6.2.2 Joint Systems.
7.9.6.2.3 Fire Doors.
7.9.6.2.4 Fire Windows.
173 7.9.6.2.5 Duct and Air Transfer Openings.
7.9.6.2.6 Fireblocking and Draftstopping.
7.10 * Heating Systems.
7.10.1 System Components. 7.10.1.1 Fuel Storage and Supply.
7.10.1.2 Heat Producing Devices. 7.10.1.2.1 Boilers.
7.10.1.2.2 Furnaces.
7.10.1.2.3 Radiant/Convective Heaters.
7.10.1.2.4 Stoves.
7.10.1.2.5 Factory Built Fireplaces.
7.10.1.2.6 Masonry Fireplaces.
7.10.1.2.7 Electric Heating Units.
174 7.10.1.3 Chimney/Vent.
7.10.1.4 Control and Safety Devices.
7.10.1.4.1 Pressure Switches.
7.10.1.4.2 High-Temperature Limits.
7.10.1.4.3 Door Switches.
7.10.1.4.4 Flame Sensors.
7.10.1.4.5 Flame Rollout Detectors.
7.10.1.4.6 Control Thermostats.
7.10.2 Installation.
7.10.2.1
7.10.3 Operation and Maintenance.
175 7.10.4 Potential Fire Causes.
7.10.4.1 Improper Installation of Fuel Delivery Systems.
7.10.4.2 Improper Installation of Heat Producing Devices.
7.10.4.2.1
7.10.4.3 Improper Installation of Control and Safety Devices.
7.10.4.4 Improper Installation of Chimneys and Vents.
7.10.4.5 Airspace Requirement Violations.
7.10.4.6 Utilizing Non-listed Devices and Accessories.
7.10.4.7 Circumvented or Failed Control and Safety Components.
7.10.4.7.1
176 7.10.4.8 Inadequate Maintenance or Cleaning.
7.10.4.8.1
7.10.4.8.2
7.10.4.8.3
7.10.4.8.4
7.10.4.9 Improper Usage.
7.10.4.9.1
7.10.4.9.2
7.10.4.10 Electrical Events.
7.10.5 Documentation and Data Collection.
7.10.5.1
7.10.5.2 Documenting Heating System Information.
177 7.10.5.2.1
7.10.5.2.2
7.10.5.2.3
7.10.5.2.4
7.10.5.3 Documenting Damage.
7.10.5.3.1
7.10.5.4 Documenting Positions of Controls.
7.10.5.5 Other Important Data.
7.10.5.6 Gathering the Parts from the Heating System.
178 7.10.5.6.1
7.10.6 Analysis of Origin and Causes.
Chapter 8 : Active Fire Protection Systems
8.1 * Introduction.
8.1.1
8.1.2 *
8.1.3
8.1.4
8.2 Documentation of Fire Protection Systems. 8.2.1 Design Documentation.
179 8.2.2 Permit History.
8.2.3 Invoices and Contracts.
8.2.4 Installation Documentation.
8.2.5 Inspection and Maintenance Records.
8.2.6 Product Literature.
8.2.7 Alarm/Activation History.
8.3 * Fire Alarm Systems. 8.3.1 General Information. 8.3.1.1 Purpose of Systems.
8.3.1.2 * System Components.
8.3.1.3 General System Operation.
180 8.3.2 * Key Components of Systems. 8.3.2.1 Fire Alarm Control Unit (FACU).
8.3.2.2 Power Supply.
181 8.3.2.2.1 Primary.
8.3.2.2.2 Secondary.
8.3.2.3 Initiating Devices.
8.3.2.3.1 Spot-Type.
8.3.2.3.2 Line-Type.
8.3.2.3.3 Video.
8.3.2.4 Smoke Detection. 8.3.2.4.1 Smoke Detectors vs. Smoke Alarms.
183 8.3.2.4.2 Ionization.
8.3.2.4.3 Photoelectric.
184 8.3.2.4.4 Air Sampling — Aspirated.
185 8.3.2.4.5 Projected Beam.
8.3.2.5 Heat Detection. 8.3.2.5.1 Spot and Linear Heat Detectors.
189 8.3.2.5.2 Radiant Energy-Sensing Fire Detector.
8.3.2.5.3 Flame Detectors.
8.3.2.5.4 Spark/Ember Detectors.
8.3.2.6 * Other Types of Detectors.
8.3.2.7 Notification Appliances.
191 8.3.3 * Operation and Installation Parameters of the System. 8.3.3.1 FACU Features.
8.3.3.2 * Location and Spacing of Devices.
8.3.3.3 Internal System Communication.
192 8.3.3.4 Means of Alarm Transmission.
8.3.3.5 Systems Monitored and Controlled. 8.3.3.5.1 Central Station.
8.3.3.5.2 Proprietary Station.
8.3.3.5.3 Remote Station.
8.3.4 * Analysis. 8.3.4.1 System Documentation and Data Collection.
8.3.4.2 Code Analysis.
8.3.4.3 Design Analysis. 8.3.4.3.1
8.3.4.3.2
8.3.4.3.3
8.3.4.3.4
193 8.3.4.3.5
8.3.4.4 Installation Analysis.
8.3.4.5 Testing and Maintenance Analysis.
8.3.4.6 System Performance.
8.3.4.6.1 Analysis of Smoke Alarm, Smoke Detector, and Heat Detector Response.
8.3.4.6.2 Analysis of Smoke Deposition.
8.3.4.6.3 * Alarm Response Time.
8.3.4.6.4 Estimation of Fire Size.
8.3.4.7 Development of Timeline.
8.3.4.7.1
8.3.4.7.2
194 8.3.4.7.3
8.3.4.8 * Thermal Damage.
8.3.4.9 * Fire Alarm Effectiveness.
8.3.4.10 Impact on Human Behavior. 8.3.4.10.1 *
8.3.4.10.2 *
8.4 Water-Based Fire Suppression Systems. 8.4.1 * General Information. 8.4.1.1 Purpose of Systems.
8.4.1.2 General System Operation. 8.4.1.2.1 Extinguishment Mechanism.
195 8.4.1.2.2 * Types of Water-Based Systems. 8.4.1.2.2.1 Wet Pipe Sprinkler System.
8.4.1.2.2.2 Dry Pipe Sprinkler System.
196 8.4.1.2.2.3 Preaction Sprinkler System.
197 8.4.1.2.2.4 Deluge Sprinkler System.
198 8.4.1.2.2.5 Water Spray.
8.4.1.2.2.6 Water Mist Systems.
8.4.1.2.2.7 Foam Water Systems.
8.4.1.2.3 Water Supply.
8.4.2 Key Components of Water-Based Systems.
8.4.2.1 Sprinklers/Nozzles.
199 8.4.2.2 Piping.
8.4.2.3 System Valves.
8.4.2.4 Water Supply. 8.4.2.4.1
8.4.2.4.2
8.4.2.4.3
8.4.2.4.4
8.4.2.4.5
8.4.3 Operation and Installation Parameters of the System. 8.4.3.1 Location and Spacing of Sprinklers. 8.4.3.1.1
200 8.4.3.1.2
8.4.3.1.3
8.4.3.1.4
8.4.3.2 Pipe Sizing and Arrangement. 8.4.3.2.1
8.4.3.2.2
8.4.3.2.3
8.4.3.3 Sprinkler Coverage and Distribution. 8.4.3.3.1
8.4.3.3.2
8.4.3.3.3
8.4.3.4 Water Flow Rate and Pressure. 8.4.3.4.1
201 8.4.3.4.2
8.4.3.5 Activation Mechanisms and Criteria. 8.4.3.5.1
8.4.3.5.2
8.4.3.6 Systems Monitored and Controlled. 8.4.3.6.1
8.4.3.6.2
8.4.4 Analysis. 8.4.4.1 System Documentation and Data Collection. 8.4.4.1.1
8.4.4.1.2
8.4.4.2 Code Analysis. 8.4.4.2.1
202 8.4.4.3 Design Analysis. 8.4.4.3.1
8.4.4.3.2 Placement.
8.4.4.4 Hazard Protected. 8.4.4.4.1 Level of Hazard.
203 8.4.4.4.2 Changes Affecting Hazard Classification.
8.4.4.4.3 Capacity.
8.4.4.4.4 Coverage. 8.4.4.4.4.1 Amount of Building Coverage.
8.4.4.4.4.2 Total or Complete Coverage.
8.4.4.4.4.3 Partial or Selective Coverage.
8.4.4.4.4.4 Local Coverage.
8.4.4.4.4.5 Installation Analysis.
8.4.4.4.4.6 Testing and Maintenance.
8.4.4.4.4.7 System Performance.
204 8.4.4.4.4.8 Timelines.
8.4.4.4.4.9 Impact on Human Behavior.
8.5 Non-Water-Based Fire Suppression Systems. 8.5.1 * General Information. 8.5.1.1 Purpose of Systems.
8.5.1.2 Method of Application.
8.5.1.3 Suppression Agents. 8.5.1.3.1 Halons and Clean Agents.
205 8.5.1.3.2 Carbon Dioxide.
206 8.5.1.3.3 Dry Chemical.
208 8.5.1.3.3.1 Sodium Bicarbonate–Based Dry Chemical.
209 8.5.1.3.3.2 Dry Chemicals Based on the Salts of Potassium.
8.5.1.3.3.3 Multipurpose Dry Chemical.
8.5.1.3.4 Wet Chemical.
210 8.5.1.3.5 Expansion Foam.
8.5.1.3.6 Condensed and Dispersed Aerosols.
8.5.2 Key Components of Systems. 8.5.2.1 Suppression Agent Supply.
8.5.2.2 Pressure Sources.
211 8.5.2.3 Distribution Piping.
8.5.2.4 Valves, Hoses, and Fittings.
8.5.2.5 Proportioners.
212 8.5.2.6 Distribution Nozzles.
214 8.5.2.7 Actuation System.
215 8.5.2.8 System Monitoring and Control.
216 8.5.3 Operation and Installation Parameters of the System. 8.5.3.1 Location and Spacing of Nozzles.
8.5.3.2 Pipe Sizing and Arrangement.
8.5.3.3 Nozzle Coverage and Distribution.
8.5.3.4 Activation Mechanisms and Criteria.
8.5.3.5 Systems Monitored and Controlled.
217 8.5.4 Analysis. 8.5.4.1 *
8.5.4.2 Design Analysis. 8.5.4.2.1 Fire Impact.
8.5.4.2.2 Hazard Protected.
8.5.4.2.3 Placement.
8.5.4.2.4 Installation.
8.5.4.2.5 System Performance.
8.5.4.2.6 Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance.
8.5.4.2.7 Origin and Cause.
8.5.4.2.8 Timelines.
218 8.5.4.2.9 * Estimation of Fire Size.
8.5.4.2.10 Impact on Human Behavior.
8.5.4.2.11 * Fire Modeling.
8.6 Spoliation Issues.
Chapter 9 : Electricity and Fire
9.1 * Introduction.
9.1.1
9.1.2
9.2 Basic Electricity. 9.2.1 General.
219 9.2.2 Comparing Electricity to Hydraulics.
9.2.2.1 Elements of Hydraulic and Electrical Systems.
9.2.2.2 Comparing Hydraulic Pressure to Voltage. 9.2.2.2.1
220 9.2.2.2.2
9.2.2.3 Comparing Water Flow to Current.
9.2.2.4 Direct Current and Alternating Current.
9.2.2.5 Comparing Water Pipes to Conductors.
9.2.2.6 Comparing Closed Hydraulic Systems to Electrical Circuits.
221 9.2.2.7 Comparing Hydraulic Friction Loss to Electrical Resistance. 9.2.2.7.1
9.2.2.7.2
9.2.2.8 Comparing Pipe Size to Wire Gauge.
222 9.2.3.1
9.2.3.2
9.2.4 Conductivity of Conductors.
9.2.5 Ohm’s Law.
223 9.2.5.2
9.2.5.3
9.2.5.4
9.2.6 Electrical Power.
9.2.6.1
224 9.2.6.2
9.2.7 Ohm’s Law Wheel.
225 9.2.7.2
9.2.8 Applying Ohm’s Law.
9.2.8.1
9.2.8.2
226 9.2.8.3
9.3 Building Electrical Systems. 9.3.1 * General.
9.3.2 Electrical Service. 9.3.2.1 Single-Phase Service.
228 9.3.2.1.2
9.3.2.2 Three-Phase Service.
9.3.3 Meter and Base.
229 9.3.4 Significance.
9.4 Service Equipment.
9.5 Grounding. 9.5.1 General.
9.5.1.1
230 9.5.2 Floating Neutral (Open Neutral).
231 9.6.1.1
235 9.6.1.2
9.6.2 Fuses. 9.6.2.1 Operations.
9.6.2.1.1
236 9.6.2.2 Plug Fuses.
9.6.2.3 Type S Fuses. 9.6.2.3.1
9.6.2.3.2
9.6.2.4 Time-Delay Fuses.
237 9.6.2.5 Cartridge Fuses.
239 9.6.3.1.1
9.6.3.1.2
9.6.3.2 Main Breakers. 9.6.3.2.1
9.6.3.2.2
9.6.3.3 Branch Circuit Breakers. 9.6.3.3.1
240 9.6.3.3.2
9.6.3.4 Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI).
9.6.3.4.1 Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI).
9.6.3.5 Arc Fault Circuit Interrupter (AFCI).
9.6.4 Circuit Breaker Panels. 9.6.4.1
9.6.4.2
9.6.4.3
241 9.7 Branch Circuits.
9.7.1 Conductors.
9.7.2 Sizes of Conductors.
9.7.2.1
9.7.2.2
9.7.3 Copper Conductors. 9.7.3.1
242 9.7.3.2
9.7.4 * Aluminum Conductors. 9.7.4.1 Pure Aluminum.
9.7.4.2 Copper-Clad Aluminum.
9.7.5 Insulation. 9.7.5.1 General.
9.7.5.1.1
9.7.5.1.2
9.7.5.2 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC).
9.7.5.3 Rubber.
9.7.5.4 Other Materials.
9.8 Outlets and Devices.
243 9.8.1 Switches.
9.8.2 Receptacles.
9.8.2.2
9.8.3 Other Outlets, Devices, or Equipment.
9.8.3.1
9.8.3.2
244 9.9 Ignition by Electrical Energy. 9.9.1 General.
9.9.1.1
9.9.1.2
9.9.1.3
9.9.1.4
9.9.2 Resistance Heating. 9.9.2.1 General. 9.9.2.1.1
9.9.2.1.2
9.9.2.2 Heat-Producing Devices.
9.9.2.3 Poor Connections.
245 9.9.3 Overcurrent and Overload.
9.9.3.1
9.9.3.2
9.9.4 Arcs. 9.9.4.1 General.
9.9.4.2 High-Voltage Arcs. 9.9.4.2.1
9.9.4.2.2
9.9.4.3 Static Electricity.
9.9.4.4 Parting Arcs.
246 9.9.4.4.1
9.9.4.4.2
9.9.4.5 * Arcing Across a Carbonized Path.
9.9.4.5.1 Arc Tracking.
9.9.5 Sparks.
247 9.9.5.1
9.9.5.2
9.9.6 High-Resistance Faults.
9.10 Interpreting Damage to Electrical Systems. 9.10.1 General.
9.10.2 * Short-Circuit and Ground-Fault Parting Arcs.
248 9.10.2.2
9.10.3.1 *
250 9.10.3.2
252 9.10.3.3 *
9.10.3.4
9.10.3.5 * Arcing Involving Uninsulated Conductors.
9.10.4 * Overheating Connections.
257 9.10.5.1
258 9.10.6 Effects Not Caused by Electricity.
9.10.6.1 Conductor Surface Colors.
9.10.6.2 Melting by Fire.
261 9.10.6.3 * Alloying.
9.10.6.3.1
9.10.6.3.2
9.10.6.3.3
9.10.6.4 * Mechanical Gouges.
262 9.10.7 * Insulation Damage.
9.10.7.1 * Hammer Mis-Hits.
9.11 * Identification of Arc Melting of Electrical Conductors.
9.11.1 Melting Caused by Electrical Arcing. 9.11.1.1
263 9.11.1.2
9.11.2 Melting Caused by Fire.
9.11.3 Eutectic Melting.
9.11.4 Extraneous Melting.
9.11.5 Undersized Conductors.
9.11.6 Nicked or Stretched Conductors.
9.11.7 Deteriorated Insulation.
264 9.11.8 * Overdriven or Misdriven Staple. 9.11.8.1
9.11.8.2
9.11.8.3
9.11.9 Short Circuit.
9.11.10 Beaded Conductor.
9.12 Static Electricity. 9.12.1 Introduction to Static Electricity. 9.12.1.1
9.12.1.2
265 9.12.2 Generation of Static Electricity. 9.12.2.1 General.
9.12.2.2 * Ignitible Liquids.
9.12.2.2.1
9.12.2.2.2
1
266 9.12.2.3 Charges on the Surface of a Liquid.
9.12.2.3.1
9.12.2.3.2
9.12.2.3.3
9.12.2.4 * Switch Loading.
9.12.2.5 Spraying Operations.
9.12.2.5.1
9.12.2.5.2
9.12.2.6 Gases.
9.12.2.7 Dusts and Fibers.
267 9.12.2.8 Static Electric Discharge from the Human Body.
9.12.2.9 Clothing.
9.12.3 * Incendive Arc.
9.12.3.1
9.12.3.2
9.12.3.3 Arcs Between Conductors.
268 9.12.3.3.1
9.12.3.3.2
9.12.3.4 Discharges Between Conductors and Insulators.
9.12.4 * Ignition Energy.
9.12.4.1
9.12.4.2
9.12.5 Controlling Accumulations of Static Electricity.
9.12.5.1 Humidification.
9.12.5.1.1
9.12.5.1.2
9.12.5.1.3
9.12.5.2 Bonding and Grounding.
9.12.5.2.1
269 9.12.5.2.2
9.12.5.2.3
9.12.5.2.4
9.12.6 Conditions Necessary for Static Arc Ignition.
9.12.7 Investigating Static Electric Ignitions.
9.12.7.1
9.12.7.2
9.12.7.3
9.12.7.4
9.12.7.5
9.12.7.6
9.12.7.7
9.12.7.8
270 9.12.8 * Lightning. 9.12.8.1 General.
9.12.8.2 Lightning Characteristics.
9.12.8.3 Lightning Strikes. 9.12.8.3.1
9.12.8.3.2
9.12.8.4 Lightning Damage.
9.12.8.5 Lightning Detection Networks.
271 9.13 Lithium Ion Batteries.
Chapter 10 : Building Fuel Gas Systems
10.1 * Introduction.
10.1.1 Impact of Fuel Gases on Fire and Explosion Investigations.
10.1.1.1 Fuel Sources.
10.1.1.2 Ignition Sources.
10.1.1.2.1
10.1.1.2.2
10.1.1.3 Both Fuel Source and Ignition Source.
10.1.2 Additional Fire Spread. 10.1.2.1
10.1.2.2
272 10.2 * Fuel Gases.
10.2.1 Natural Gas. 10.2.1.1
10.2.1.2
10.2.2 Commercial Propane.
10.2.2.1
10.2.2.2
10.2.3 Other Fuel Gases.
10.2.3.1 Commercial Butane.
10.2.3.2 Propane HD5.
10.2.3.3 Manufactured Gases.
10.2.4 Odorization.
273 10.2.4.1
10.2.4.2
10.2.4.3
10.3 Natural Gas Systems.
10.3.1 * Transmission Pipelines.
10.3.2 Main Pipelines (Mains).
10.3.3 Service Lines.
10.3.4 Metering. 10.3.4.1
10.3.4.2
274 10.4 LP-Gas Systems.
10.4.1 LP-Gas Storage Containers.
10.4.1.1 * Tanks. 10.4.1.1.1
10.4.1.1.2
10.4.1.1.3
10.4.1.1.4
10.4.1.2 * Cylinders.
10.4.2 Container Appurtenances.
10.4.2.1 Pressure Relief Devices.
10.4.2.1.1
10.4.2.1.2
275 10.4.2.2 Connections for Flow Control.
10.4.2.3 Liquid Level Gauging Devices.
10.4.2.3.1
10.4.2.3.2
10.4.2.4 Pressure Gauges.
10.4.3 Pressure Regulation. 10.4.3.1
10.4.3.2
10.4.4 Vaporizers.
10.5 Common Fuel Gas System Components.
10.5.1 Pressure Regulation (Reduction). 10.5.1.1 General.
10.5.1.1.1
10.5.1.1.2
276 10.5.1.1.3
10.5.1.2 Normal Working Pressures.
10.5.1.3 Excess Pressures.
10.5.2 Service Piping Systems. 10.5.2.1 Materials for Mains and Services.
10.5.2.2 Underground Piping.
10.5.3 Valves.
10.5.4 Gas Burners.
10.5.4.1 Manual Ignition.
10.5.4.2 Pilot Lights.
277 10.5.4.3 Pilotless Igniters.
10.6 Common Piping in Buildings.
10.6.1 Size of Piping.
10.6.2 Piping Materials.
10.6.3 Joints and Fittings.
10.6.4 Piping Installation.
10.6.5 Main Shutoff Valves.
10.6.6 Prohibited Locations.
10.6.7 Electrical Bonding and Grounding.
10.7 Common Appliance and Equipment Requirements.
10.7.1 Installation.
10.7.1.1 Approved Appliances, Accessories, and Equipment.
278 10.7.1.2 Type of Gas.
10.7.1.3 * Areas of Flammable Vapors.
10.7.1.4 Gas Appliance Pressure Regulators.
10.7.1.5 Accessibility for Service.
10.7.1.6 Clearance to Combustible Materials.
10.7.1.7 Electrical Connections.
10.7.2 Venting and Air Supply. 10.7.2.1
10.7.2.2
10.7.3 Appliance Controls.
10.8 * Common Fuel Gas Utilization Equipment.
10.8.1 Air Heating.
279 10.8.2 Water Heating.
10.8.3 Cooking.
10.8.4 Refrigeration and Cooling.
10.8.5 Engines.
10.8.6 Illumination.
10.8.7 Incinerators, Toilets, and Exhaust Afterburners.
10.9 Investigating Fuel Gas Systems Incidents.
10.9.1
10.9.2 Fuel Gas System Analysis.
10.9.2.1 Necessary Measurements and Diagrams.
10.9.2.1.1
281 10.9.3.2
10.9.4 Leakage.
10.9.4.1 Pipe Junctions.
10.9.4.2 Pilot Lights.
10.9.4.3 Unlit Burners.
10.9.4.4 Uncapped Pipes and Outlets.
10.9.4.5 Malfunctioning Appliances and Controls.
10.9.4.6 Regulators.
10.9.4.7 Corrosion.
10.9.4.7.1
10.9.4.7.2
10.9.4.8 * Physical Damage.
282 10.9.4.8.1
10.9.5 Pressure Testing. 10.9.5.1 General. 10.9.5.1.1
10.9.5.1.2
283 10.9.5.2 Gas Meter Test. 10.9.5.2.1
10.9.5.2.2
10.9.5.3 * Pressure Drop Method.
10.9.6 Locating Leaks.
10.9.6.1 Soap Bubble Test.
10.9.6.2.1
284 10.9.6.2.2
10.9.6.2.3
10.9.6.3 Bar Holing.
10.9.6.4 Vegetation Surveys.
10.9.7 Testing Flow Rates and Pressures.
285 10.9.8 Collection of Gas Piping.
286 10.9.9.2 * Odorant Removal from Gas.
287 Chapter 11 : Fire-Related Human Behavior
11.1 * Introduction.
11.1.1
11.1.2
11.1.3
11.2 History of Research.
288 11.3 General Considerations of Human Responses to Fires.
11.3.1 Individual.
11.3.1.1 Physical Limitations.
11.3.1.2 Cognitive Comprehension Limitations.
11.3.1.3 Familiarity with Physical Setting.
11.3.2 Groups.
11.3.2.1 * Group Size.
11.3.2.2 * Group Structure.
11.3.2.2.1
289 11.3.2.2.2
11.3.2.3 Group Permanence. 11.3.2.3.1
11.3.2.3.2
11.3.2.4 Roles and Norms. 11.3.2.4.1
11.3.2.4.2
11.3.3 Characteristics of the Physical Setting.
11.3.3.1 Locations of Exits.
11.3.3.2 Number of Exits.
11.3.3.3 Height of Structure.
11.3.3.4 * Fire Alarm Systems. 11.3.3.4.1
11.3.3.4.2 *
11.3.3.5 Fire Suppression Systems.
290 11.3.4 Characteristics of the Fire.
11.3.4.1 Presence of Flames.
11.3.4.2 Presence of Smoke.
11.3.4.3 Effects of Toxic Gases and Oxygen Depletion.
11.4 Factors Related to Fire Initiation.
11.4.1 Factors Involved in Accidental Fires.
11.4.1.1 Improper Maintenance and Operations. 11.4.1.1.1
11.4.1.1.2
11.4.1.2 Housekeeping.
291 11.4.1.3 Product Labels, Instructions, and Warnings.
11.4.1.4 Purpose of Labels.
11.4.1.5 Purpose of Instructions.
11.4.1.6 Purpose of Warnings.
11.4.1.7.1 Alert Word.
292 11.4.1.7.2 Statement of the Danger.
11.4.1.7.3 How to Avoid the Danger.
11.4.1.7.4 Consequences of the Danger.
11.4.1.8 Standards on Labels, Instructions, and Warnings.
11.4.2 Recalls.
11.4.3 Other Considerations.
11.4.4 Violations of Fire Safety Codes and Standards.
11.5 * Youth Fire-Setting Behavior.
293 11.5.1 Developmental Stages.
11.5.1.1 Preschool.
11.5.1.2 Early Elementary.
11.5.1.3 Latency.
11.5.1.4 Adolescent.
11.5.2 Mental Health.
11.6 Incendiary Fires.
11.7 Human Factors Related to Fire Spread. 11.7.1
11.7.2
11.8 Recognition and Response to Fires.
294 11.8.1 Perception of the Danger (Sensory Cues).
11.8.2 Decision to Act (Response).
11.8.3 Action Taken.
11.8.4 Escape Factors.
11.8.5 Information Received from Survivors.
295 Chapter 12 : Legal Considerations
12.1 * Introduction.
12.2 Constitutional Considerations.
296 12.3 Legal Considerations During the Investigation. 12.3.1 Authority to Conduct the Investigation.
12.3.2 Right of Entry.
12.3.2.1
12.3.2.2
12.3.3 Method of Entry.
12.3.3.1 Consent.
12.3.3.2 Exigent Circumstance. 12.3.3.2.1
12.3.3.2.2
297 12.3.3.3 Administrative Search Warrant. 12.3.3.3.1
12.3.3.3.2
12.3.3.4 Criminal Search Warrant.
12.3.3.4.1
12.3.3.4.2
12.3.4 The Questioning of Suspects. 12.3.4.1
12.3.4.2
12.3.5 Spoliation of Evidence.
298 12.3.5.1 Responsibility.
12.3.5.2 Documentation.
12.3.5.3 Remedies for Spoliation.
12.3.5.4 Notification to Interested Parties.
12.3.5.5 Documentation Prior to Alteration.
12.3.5.6 Alteration and Movement of Evidence. 12.3.5.6.1
12.3.5.6.2
12.3.5.7 Notification Prior to Destructive Testing.
299 12.4 Pretrial Legal Considerations. 12.4.1 Introduction.
12.4.2 Forms of Discovery.
12.4.2.1 Request to Produce.
12.4.2.2 Interrogatories.
12.4.2.3 Depositions.
12.4.2.3.1 Procedure.
12.4.2.3.2 Discovery Depositions.
12.4.2.3.3 Trial Depositions.
300 12.4.2.4 Reports.
12.4.3 Motions.
12.5 Trials.
12.5.1 * Rules of Evidence. 12.5.1.1
12.5.1.2
12.5.2 Types of Evidence.
12.5.2.1 Demonstrative Evidence.
12.5.2.1.1 Photographs/Illustrative Forms of Evidence.
301 12.5.2.1.2 Samples.
12.5.2.2 Documentary Evidence.
12.5.2.3 Testimonial Evidence.
12.5.2.3.1 Fact Witnesses.
12.5.2.3.2 Expert Witnesses.
12.5.2.3.3 Admissibility of Expert Testimony.
12.5.2.3.4 Relevance.
302 12.5.2.3.5 Qualifications of Expert.
12.5.2.3.6 Reliability of Opinions.
12.5.3 Forms of Examination.
12.5.3.1 Direct Examination.
12.5.3.2 Cross-Examination.
12.5.4 Forms of Testimony.
12.5.4.1 Affidavits.
12.5.4.2 Answers to Interrogatories.
12.5.4.3 Depositions and Trial Testimony.
303 12.5.5 Burden of Proof.
12.5.6 Criminal Prosecution.
12.5.6.1 Arson. 12.5.6.1.1
12.5.6.1.2 Arson.
12.5.6.2 Arson Statutes.
12.5.6.3 Factors to Be Considered.
12.5.6.4 Other Fire-Related Criminal Acts. 12.5.6.4.1
12.5.6.4.2
304 12.5.6.5 * Arson-Reporting/Immunity Statutes.
12.5.7 Civil Litigation.
12.5.7.1 Negligence. 12.5.7.1.1
12.5.7.1.2 Hypothetical Example of the Elements of Negligence.
305 12.5.7.2 Codes, Regulations, and Standards.
12.5.7.3 Product Liability.
12.5.7.4 Strict Liability. 12.5.7.4.1
12.5.7.4.2
Chapter 13 : Safety
13.1 * General.
306 13.1.1.1 *
13.1.1.2 *
13.1.1.2.1
13.1.1.2.2
13.1.2 Health and Safety Programs
307 13.1.2.1
13.1.2.1.1 Management Commitment and Employee Participation.
13.1.2.1.2 Hazard and Risk Assessment.
13.1.2.1.3 Hazard Prevention and Control.
13.1.2.1.4 Safety and Health Training and Education.
13.1.2.1.5 Long-Term Commitment.
13.1.2.2
13.2 General Fire Scene Safety.
13.2.1 Investigating the Scene Alone.
13.2.2 Investigator Fatigue. 13.2.2.1
13.2.2.2
308 13.2.3 Working Above or Below Grade Level.
13.2.3.1
13.2.3.2
13.2.3.2.1
13.2.3.3
13.2.3.4
13.2.3.5
309 13.2.4.1
13.2.4.2
13.2.5 Safety of Bystanders. 13.2.5.1
13.2.5.2
13.2.6 Status of Suppression. 13.2.6.1
13.2.6.2
13.2.7 First Aid Kit and Emergency Notification Numbers.
13.2.8 Emergency Notification Signal.
13.3 Fire Scene Hazards.
13.3.1 Physical Hazards.
310 13.3.2.1
13.3.2.2
311 13.3.3 Electrical Hazards.
13.3.3.1
13.3.3.2 * Lockout/Tagout (LOTO).
13.3.3.3
13.3.3.4
13.3.3.4.1
13.3.3.4.2
312 13.3.3.4.3
13.3.3.4.4
13.3.3.4.5
13.3.3.4.6
13.3.3.4.7
13.3.3.4.8
13.3.3.4.9
13.3.3.4.10
13.3.3.4.11
13.3.3.4.12
13.3.4 Chemical Hazards.
13.3.4.1
13.3.4.2
313 13.3.4.3
13.3.4.4
13.3.4.5
13.3.4.6
13.3.5 Biological Hazards.
13.3.5.1
13.3.5.2
314 13.3.6 Mechanical Hazards.
13.3.7.1 Radiological Hazards.
13.3.7.2 Utilities.
315 13.3.7.3 Mechanized Equipment Hazards
13.4 Safety Plans.
13.4.1 * Hazard and Risk Assessment.
13.4.1.1 Identify the Hazards.
13.4.1.1.1 Physical Hazards.
13.4.1.1.2 Structural Hazards.
13.4.1.1.3 Electrical Hazards.
13.4.1.1.4 Chemical Hazards.
13.4.1.1.5 Biological Hazards.
13.4.1.1.6 Mechanical Hazards.
13.4.1.2 Determine the Risk of the Hazard.
316 13.4.1.3 Control the Hazard.
13.4.1.3.1 Engineering Controls.
13.4.1.3.2 Administrative Controls.
13.4.1.3.3 Proper Selection and Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).
13.4.2 Site-Specific Safety Plans.
13.4.2.2 Confined Space Program.
317 13.4.3 Management of Plans and Site Safety.
13.5 Chemical and Contaminant Exposure.
13.5.1 Types of Exposure Effects. 13.5.1.1 Local Effect.
13.5.1.2 Systemic Effect.
318 13.5.2 Routes of Exposure. 13.5.2.1 Inhalation.
13.5.2.2 Cutaneous.
13.5.2.3 Ingestion.
13.5.2.4 Injection.
13.5.2.5 Ocular Exposure Route.
13.5.3 Toxicity Exposure Levels. 13.5.3.1 Acute Exposure.
13.5.3.2 Chronic Exposure.
13.5.3.3 Cumulative Exposure.
13.5.3.4 Latency Period.
13.6 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). 13.6.1 Proper Selection and Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).
319 13.6.1.2 PPE Use.
13.6.1.3 * Decontamination.
13.6.1.3.1 Standard Cloth Clothing.
13.6.1.3.2
13.6.1.3.3
13.6.1.3.4
320 13.6.2 * Examples of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).
13.6.2.1 Respiratory Protection.
13.6.2.2 Hand Protection.
13.6.2.3 Other Specialized Equipment.
13.7 Emergency Action Plans.
13.7.1 Emergency Evacuation Plans.
321 13.7.2 Medical Emergency Plans.
13.7.3 Severe Weather Plans.
13.7.4 Fire Emergency Plan.
13.7.5 Additional Emergency Action Plans.
13.8 Post-Scene Safety Activities.
13.8.1 Decontamination.
13.8.2 Medical Screening.
13.9 Safety in Off-Scene Investigation Activities. 13.9.1
13.9.2 Off-Scene Interviews.
322 13.9.3
13.10 Special Hazards. 13.10.1 Criminal Acts or Acts of Terrorism.
13.10.1.1 Secondary Devices.
13.10.2 Residue Chemicals.
13.10.3 Biological and Radiological Terrorism.
13.10.4 Drug Labs.
Chapter 14 : Sources of Information
14.1 General. 14.1.1 Purpose of Obtaining Information.
14.1.2 Number and Diversity of Informational Sources.
323 14.1.3 Data Relevance, Accuracy, and Reliability.
14.2 Legal Considerations.
14.2.1 Freedom of Information Act. 14.2.1.1
14.2.1.2
14.2.2 Privileged Communications. 14.2.2.1
14.2.2.2
14.2.3 Confidential Communications.
14.2.4 Privacy Considerations.
14.2.5 Authorizations for Release of Information.
324 14.3 ASTM Standards for Collecting, Preserving, and Evaluating Data. 14.3.1
14.3.2
14.4 Forms of Information.
14.4.1 Verbal Information.
14.4.2 Written and Printed Information.
14.4.3 Visual Information.
14.4.4 Digital Information.
14.5 Sources of Non-Scene Data.
14.5.1 Witness Data. 14.5.1.1 Purpose of Interviews.
325 14.5.1.2 Identifying Possible Witnesses.
14.5.1.2.1
14.5.1.2.2
14.5.1.3 Interview Information.
14.5.1.3.1
326 14.5.1.3.2
14.5.1.4 Preparation for the Interview.
14.5.1.4.1
14.5.1.4.2
14.5.1.4.3
14.5.1.4.4
14.5.1.4.5
14.5.1.5 Documenting the Interview.
14.5.2 Property Data.
327 14.5.3 Electronically Stored Information. 14.5.3.1 Description.
14.5.3.2 Sources.
14.5.4 Existing Research and Publications.
14.5.5 Experimentation and Testing.
14.5.6 Governmental Sources of Information. 14.5.6.1 Municipal Government. 14.5.6.1.1 Municipal Clerk.
14.5.6.1.2 Municipal Assessor.
14.5.6.1.3 Municipal Treasurer.
14.5.6.1.4 Municipal Street Department.
328 14.5.6.1.5 Municipal Building Department.
14.5.6.1.6 Municipal Health Department.
14.5.6.1.7 Municipal Board of Education.
14.5.6.1.8 Municipal Police Department.
14.5.6.1.9 Municipal Fire Department.
14.5.6.1.10 Other Municipal Agencies.
14.5.6.2 County Government. 14.5.6.2.1 County Recorder.
14.5.6.2.2 County Clerk.
14.5.6.2.3 County Assessor.
14.5.6.2.4 County Treasurer.
14.5.6.2.5 County Coroner/Medical Examiner.
14.5.6.2.6 County Sheriff’s Department.
14.5.6.2.7 County Emergency Management Agency.
14.5.6.2.8 Other County Agencies.
329 14.5.6.3 State Government. 14.5.6.3.1 Secretary of State.
14.5.6.3.2 State Treasurer.
14.5.6.3.3 State Department of Vital Statistics.
14.5.6.3.4 State Department of Revenue.
14.5.6.3.5 State Department of Regulation.
14.5.6.3.6 State Department of Transportation.
14.5.6.3.7 State Department of Natural Resources.
14.5.6.3.8 State Insurance Commissioner’s Office.
14.5.6.3.9 State Police.
14.5.6.3.10 State Fire Marshal’s Office.
14.5.6.3.11 State Office of Homeland Security.
14.5.6.3.12 State Emergency Management.
14.5.6.3.13 Other State Agencies.
14.5.7 Federal Government. 14.5.7.1 Department of Agriculture.
330 14.5.7.2 Department of Commerce.
14.5.7.2.1 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
14.5.7.2.1.1 NIST Engineering Laboratories, Division of Fire Research.
14.5.7.2.1.2 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
14.5.7.3 Military Branches.
14.5.7.4 Department of Health and Human Services.
14.5.7.5 Department of Housing and Urban Development.
331 14.5.7.6 Department of the Interior.
14.5.7.7 Department of Labor.
14.5.7.7.1 Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
14.5.7.8 Department of State.
14.5.7.9 Department of Transportation.
14.5.7.10 Internal Revenue Service.
14.5.7.11 Department of Justice.
14.5.7.11.1 Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF).
14.5.7.11.1.1
14.5.7.11.1.2
332 14.5.7.11.1.3
14.5.7.11.1.4
14.5.7.11.2
14.5.7.11.3
14.5.7.11.4
14.5.7.11.5
14.5.7.11.6
14.5.7.11.7
14.5.7.12 U.S. Postal Service.
14.5.7.13 Department of Energy.
14.5.7.14 United States Department of Homeland Security.
14.5.7.14.1
333 14.5.7.14.2
14.5.7.14.3
14.5.7.14.4 Federal Emergency Management Agency.
14.5.7.14.4.1 U.S. Fire Administration.
14.5.7.15 U.S. Citizenship and Naturalization Service.
14.5.8 Other Federal Agencies.
14.6 Private Sources of Information. 14.6.1 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).
14.6.2 Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE).
14.6.3 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
14.6.4 American National Standards Institute.
334 14.6.5 National Association of Fire Investigators (NAFI).
14.6.6 International Association of Arson Investigators (IAAI).
14.6.7 Regional Fire Investigations Organizations.
14.6.8 Real Estate Industry.
14.6.9 Abstract and Title Companies.
14.6.10 Financial Institutions.
14.6.11 Insurance Industry.
14.6.12 Educational Institutions.
14.6.13 Utility Companies.
335 14.6.14 Trade Organizations.
14.6.15 News Organizations.
14.6.16 Lightning Detection Networks.
Chapter 15 : Planning the Investigation
15.1 * Introduction.
15.1.1
15.1.2
15.1.3
15.2 Basic Incident Information.
15.2.1 Location.
15.2.2 Date and Time of Incident.
15.2.3 Weather Conditions.
336 15.2.4 Size and Complexity of Incident. 15.2.4.1
15.2.4.2
15.2.5 Type and Use of Structure. 15.2.5.1
15.2.5.2
15.2.6 Nature and Extent of Damage. 15.2.6.1
15.2.6.2
15.2.7 Security of Scene.
15.2.8 Purpose of Investigation. 15.2.8.1
15.2.8.2
15.3 Organizing the Investigation Functions. 15.3.1
337 15.3.2
15.4 Pre-Investigation Team Meeting.
15.4.1 Equipment and Facilities.
15.4.2 Personal Safety Equipment.
15.4.3 Tools and Equipment.
338 15.5 Specialized Personnel and Technical Consultants. 15.5.1 General.
15.5.1.1
15.5.1.2
15.5.1.3
15.5.2 Materials Engineer or Scientist.
15.5.3 Mechanical Engineer.
15.5.4 Electrical Engineer.
339 15.5.5 Chemical Engineer/Chemist. 15.5.5.1
15.5.5.2
15.5.6 Fire Science and Engineering.
15.5.6.1 Fire Protection Engineer.
15.5.6.2 Fire Engineering Technologist.
15.5.6.3 Fire Engineering Technician.
15.5.7 Industry Expert.
15.5.8 Attorney.
15.5.9 Insurance Agent/Adjuster.
15.5.10 Canine Teams.
340 15.6 Case Management.
Chapter 16 : Documentation of the Investigation
16.1 * Introduction. 16.1.1
16.1.2
16.2 Photography. 16.2.1 * General.
16.2.1.1 * Photography and Videography.
16.2.1.2 Image Authentication.
16.2.1.2.1
16.2.1.2.2 *
16.2.2 Timing.
341 16.2.3 Basics. 16.2.3.1 Types of Cameras.
16.2.3.1.1 Color Images.
16.2.3.1.2 Resolution.
16.2.3.1.3 Number of Photographs Taken.
16.2.4 Understanding the Parts of a Camera. 16.2.4.1 Lenses.
16.2.4.2 Focal Length.
16.2.4.3 Depth of Field.
16.2.4.4 Filters.
16.2.4.5 Shutter Speed.
16.2.5 Lighting.
342 16.2.5.1
16.2.5.2
16.2.5.3
16.2.5.4
16.2.5.5
16.2.5.6
16.2.5.7
16.2.6 Special Types of Photography.
16.2.6.1 Composition and Techniques. 16.2.6.1.1
16.2.6.1.2
16.2.6.1.3
16.2.6.2 Sequential Photographs.
344 16.2.6.3 Mosaic Photographs.
345 16.2.6.4 Photo Diagram.
346 16.2.6.5 Assisting Photographer.
16.2.6.6 Photography and the Courts.
16.2.7 Video.
347 16.2.7.1
16.2.7.2
16.2.7.3
16.2.7.4
16.2.7.5
16.2.8 Suggested Activities to Be Documented.
16.2.8.1 During the Fire.
16.2.8.2 Overhaul Photographs.
16.2.8.3 Bystander Photographs.
16.2.8.4 Exterior Photographs.
348 16.2.8.5 Structural Photographs.
16.2.8.5.1
16.2.8.5.2
16.2.8.6 Interior Photographs.
349 16.2.8.6.1
16.2.8.6.2
16.2.8.6.3
16.2.8.6.5
16.2.8.6.6
16.2.8.6.7
16.2.8.7 Utility Photographs.
16.2.8.8 Evidence Photographs.
350 16.2.8.9 Victim Photographs.
16.2.8.11 Aerial Photographs.
351 16.2.8.12 Satellite Imagery.
16.2.9 Photography Tips.
16.2.9.1
16.2.9.2
16.2.9.3
16.2.9.4
16.2.9.5
16.2.9.6
16.2.10 * Presentation of Photograph.
16.2.10.1 Computer-Based Presentations.
352 16.2.10.1.1
16.2.10.1.2
16.2.10.2 Hard Copy of Presentations.
16.3 Note Taking.
16.3.1 Forms of Incident Field Notes.
16.3.2 * Forms for Collecting Data.
353 16.3.3 Dictation of Field Notes.
16.3.4
16.4 Diagrams and Drawings.
16.4.1 Types of Drawings.
16.4.1.1 Sketches.
16.4.1.2 Diagrams.
16.4.2 Selection of Drawings.
358 16.4.3.1
16.4.3.2
16.4.4 Diagram Elements.
359 16.4.5 Drawings.
16.4.5.1 Site or Area Plans.
16.4.5.2 Floor Plans.
16.4.5.3 Elevations.
360 16.4.5.4 Details and Sections.
16.4.5.5 Exploded View Diagrams.
16.4.5.6 * Three-Dimensional (3D) Representations.
16.4.5.6.1 Structural Dimensions.
16.4.5.6.2 Availability of Dimensional Data.
16.4.5.7 Specialized Fire Investigation Diagrams. 16.4.5.7.1
361 16.4.5.7.2
16.4.6 Prepared Design and Construction Drawings. 16.4.6.1 General.
16.4.6.1.1
16.4.6.1.2
16.4.6.2 Architectural and Engineering Drawings.
362 16.4.6.3 Architectural and Engineering Schedules.
16.4.6.4 * Specifications.
16.4.6.5 Appliances and Building Equipment.
16.5 * Reports.
16.5.1 Purpose.
16.5.2 Report Organization.
16.5.3 Descriptive Information.
16.5.4 Opinions and Conclusions.
16.5.5 Pertinent Facts.
363 16.5.6 Reference to Methodology.
Chapter 17 : Physical Evidence
17.1 * General.
17.2 Physical Evidence. 17.2.1
17.2.2 *
17.3 * Preservation of the Fire Scene and Physical Evidence. 17.3.1 General.
17.3.1.1
17.3.1.2
17.3.1.3
364 17.3.2 Fire Patterns as Physical Evidence.
17.3.3 Artifact Evidence.
17.3.4 Protecting Evidence. 17.3.4.1
17.3.4.2
17.3.4.3 Flag, Bag, Tag.
17.3.4.3.1 Flag.
17.3.4.3.2 Bag.
17.3.4.3.3 Tag.
17.3.5 Role and Responsibilities of Fire Suppression Personnel in Preserving the Fire Scene. 17.3.5.1
17.3.5.1.1
17.3.5.1.2
365 17.3.5.2 Preservation.
17.3.5.3 Caution in Fire Suppression Operations.
17.3.5.3.1 Use of Water Lines and Hose Streams.
17.3.5.3.2 Overhaul. (A)
17.3.5.3.3 Salvage.
17.3.5.3.4 Movement of Knobs and Switches.
17.3.5.3.5 Use of Power Tools.
17.3.5.3.6 Limiting Access of Fire Fighters and Other Emergency Personnel.
366 17.3.6 Role and Responsibilities of the Fire Investigator.
17.3.7 Practical Considerations.
17.4 Contamination of Physical Evidence.
17.4.1 Contamination of Evidence Containers. 17.4.1.1
17.4.1.2
17.4.2 * Contamination During Collection.
17.4.2.1
17.4.2.2
17.4.2.3
17.4.3 Contamination by Fire Fighters.
17.5 Methods of Collection.
367 17.5.1 General.
17.5.1.1
17.5.1.2 *
17.5.2 Documenting the Collection of Physical Evidence. 17.5.2.1
17.5.2.2
17.5.3 Collection of Traditional Forensic Physical Evidence.
17.5.4 Collection of Evidence for Accelerant Testing.
17.5.4.1 Liquid Accelerant Characteristics.
17.5.4.2 Canine-Handler Teams.
17.5.4.3 Collection of Liquid Samples for Ignitible Liquid Testing.
368 17.5.4.4 Collection of Liquid Evidence Absorbed by Solid Materials.
17.5.4.5 Collection of Solid Samples for Accelerant Testing.
17.5.4.6 * Comparison Samples.
17.5.4.6.1
17.5.4.6.2
17.5.4.6.3
17.5.4.6.4
17.5.5 Collection of Gaseous Samples.
17.5.5.1
17.5.5.2
17.5.6 Collection of Electrical Equipment and System Components.
369 17.5.6.1
17.5.6.2
17.5.6.3
17.5.6.4
17.5.7 Collection of Appliances or Small Electrical Equipment.
17.5.7.1
17.5.7.2
17.6 Evidence Containers. 17.6.1 General.
17.6.1.1
370 17.6.1.2
17.6.2 Liquid and Solid Accelerant Evidence Containers.
17.6.2.1 Metal Cans.
17.6.2.1.2
17.6.2.2 Glass Jars.
17.6.2.2.1
371 17.6.2.2.2
17.6.2.3 Special Evidence Bags.
17.6.2.3.1
17.6.2.3.2
17.6.2.4 Common Plastic Bags.
17.6.2.4.1
17.6.2.4.2
17.7 Canine-Handler Teams Introduction.
17.7.1 Preferred Designation.
17.7.2 Other Designations for IGL Canines.
17.7.3 Investigators’ Discretion.
372 17.7.4 Handlers’ Expertise.
17.7.5 * Canine-Handler Teams.
17.7.6 * Purposes of Canine-Handler Team.
17.7.6.1 Legal Considerations for Examinations or Searches.
17.7.6.2 Uses in Public and Private Sectors.
17.7.6.3 Using Canine-Handler Teams to Help Avoid Bias.
17.7.6.3.1 Avoiding Confirmation Bias.
17.7.6.3.2 Avoiding Expectation Bias.
17.7.7 * Limitations on the Use of Alerts by Canine-Handler Teams.
373 17.7.7.1 *
17.7.7.2 Canine Olfactory System.
17.7.7.3 * Triggers.
17.7.8 Canine-Handler Teams and Accelerant Detection. 17.7.8.1 Sources.
17.7.8.2 Other Considerations.
17.7.8.3 * Capability and Reliability.
17.7.8.4 Legal Proceedings.
17.7.9 Coordinating the Investigation with the Handler.
17.7.9.1 Responsibility.
17.7.9.2 Evidence Collection.
374 17.7.10 Safety of Canine, Handler, and Others.
17.7.10.1 Handler Safety.
17.7.10.2 Canine Safety.
17.8 Identification of Physical Evidence.
17.8.1
17.8.3 Evidence List.
375 17.9 Transportation and Storage of Physical Evidence.
17.9.1 Hand Delivery.
17.9.1.1
17.9.1.2
17.9.2 Shipment. 17.9.2.1 General.
17.9.2.1.1
17.9.2.1.2
17.9.2.1.3
17.9.2.2 Shipping Electrical Evidence.
17.9.2.3 Shipping of Volatile or Hazardous Materials.
17.9.3 Storage of Evidence.
376 17.10 Chain of Custody of Physical Evidence. 17.10.1
17.10.2
377 17.11 Examination and Testing of Physical Evidence.
17.11.1 Evidence Collection or Inspections Involving Alteration Without Changes to the Evidentiary Value of theArtifacts. 17.11.
17.11.1.2
378 17.11.1.3
17.11.1.4
379 17.11.1.6 Laboratory Examination and Testing.
17.11.1.6.1
17.11.1.6.2
17.11.1.6.3
380 17.11.2 Test Methods.
17.11.2.1 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS).
17.11.2.2 Infrared Spectrophotometer (IR).
17.11.2.3 Atomic Absorption (AA).
17.11.2.4 X-ray Fluorescence.
17.11.2.5 Flash Point by Tag Closed Tester (ASTM D56).
17.11.2.6 Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup (ASTM D92).
17.11.2.7 Flash Point by Pensky-Martens Closed Tester (ASTM D93).
17.11.2.8 Flash Point and Fire Point of Liquids by Tag Open-Cup Apparatus (ASTM D1310).
17.11.2.9 Flash Point by Setaflash Closed Tester (ASTM D3828).
17.11.2.10 Autoignition Temperature of Liquid Chemicals (ASTM E659).
17.11.2.11 Heat of Combustion of Hydrocarbon Fuels by Bomb Calorimeter (Precision Method) (ASTM D4809).
17.11.2.12 Flammability of Apparel Textiles.
17.11.2.13 Cigarette Ignition Resistance of Mock-up Upholstered Furniture Assemblies.
381 17.11.2.14 Cigarette Ignition Resistance of Components of Upholstered Furniture.
17.11.2.15 Flammability of Finished Textile Floor-Covering Materials.
17.11.2.16 Flammability of Aerosol Products (ASTM D3065).
17.11.2.17 Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials (ASTM E84).
17.11.2.18 Fire Tests of Roof Coverings (ASTM E108).
17.11.2.19 Critical Radiant Flux of Floor-Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source (ASTM E648).
17.11.2.20 Room Fire Experiments.
17.11.2.21 Concentration Limits of Flammability of Chemicals (ASTM E681).
17.11.2.22 Measurement of Gases Present or Generated During Fires (ASTM E800).
382 17.11.2.23 Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products (ASTM E906).
17.11.2.24 Pressure and Rate of Pressure Rise for Combustible Dusts (ASTM E1226).
17.11.2.25 Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products Using an Oxygen ConsumptionCalorimeter.
17.11.2.26 Determination of Low Levels of Heat Release Rate for Materials and Products Using an OxygenConsumption Calorimeter (A
17.11.2.27 Ignition Properties of Plastics (ASTM D1929).
17.11.2.28 Dielectric Withstand Voltage (Mil-Std–202G Method 301).
17.11.2.29 Insulation Resistance (Mil-Std–202G Method 302).
17.11.3 Sufficiency of Samples.
17.11.3.1
17.11.3.2
17.11.4 Comparative Examination and Testing. 17.11.4.1
17.11.4.2
383 17.12 Evidence Disposition. 17.12.1
17.12.2
Chapter 18 : Origin Determination
18.1 Introduction.
18.1.1
18.1.2
18.2 Overall Methodology.
385 18.2.1
18.2.1.1
18.2.1.2
18.2.1.3
18.2.2 Sequence of Activities.
18.2.3 Sequential Pattern Analysis.
18.2.4 Systematic Procedure.
18.2.5 Recommended Methodology.
386 18.3 Data Collection for Origin Determination.
18.3.1 Initial Scene Assessment.
18.3.1.1 Safety Assessment.
18.3.1.2 Scope of the Examination.
18.3.1.3 Order of the Examination.
18.3.1.4 Surrounding Areas.
18.3.1.5 Structure Exterior.
18.3.1.5.1
18.3.1.5.2
387 18.3.1.6 Structure Interior.
18.3.1.7 Post-Fire Alterations.
18.3.1.8
18.3.2 Excavation and Reconstruction.
18.3.2.1 Scope of Excavation and Reconstruction.
388 18.3.2.2 Safety.
18.3.2.3 Excavation.
18.3.2.3.1
18.3.2.3.2
18.3.2.3.3
389 18.3.2.4 Heavy Equipment.
18.3.2.4.1
18.3.2.4.2
18.3.2.4.3
18.3.2.4.4
18.3.2.4.5
18.3.2.5 Avoiding Spoliation.
18.3.2.6 Avoiding Contamination.
18.3.2.7 Washing Floors.
391 18.3.2.8 Contents.
18.3.2.8.1
18.3.2.8.2
18.3.3 Additional Data Collection Activities for Origin Determination.
18.3.3.1 Pre-Fire Conditions.
392 18.3.3.2 Description of Fuels.
18.3.3.3 Structure Dimensions.
18.3.3.4 Weather Conditions.
18.3.3.5 Electrical Systems.
18.3.3.6 Electrical Loads.
18.3.3.7 HVAC Systems.
18.3.3.8 Fuel Gas Systems.
18.3.3.9 Liquid Fuel Systems.
393 18.3.3.10 Fire Protection Systems.
18.3.3.11 Fire Protection System Data.
18.3.3.12 Security Cameras.
18.3.3.13 Intrusion Alarm Systems.
18.3.3.14 Witness Observations.
18.4 Analyze the Data.
18.4.1 Fire Pattern Analysis.
18.4.1.1 Consideration of All Patterns.
18.4.1.2 Sequence of Patterns.
394 18.4.1.3 Pattern Generation.
18.4.1.3.1
18.4.1.3.2
18.4.1.4 Ventilation.
18.4.1.5 Movement and Intensity Patterns.
18.4.1.6 *
18.4.2 * Heat and Flame Vector Analysis.
398 18.4.2.1 Complementary Vectors.
18.4.2.2 Heat Source.
399 18.4.2.3 Additional Tools for Pattern Visualization.
18.4.3 Analysis of Sequential Events.
18.4.4 Fire Dynamics.
18.4.4.1 *
18.4.4.2 *
18.4.5 * Origin Matrix Analysis. 18.4.5.1 *
18.4.5.2 *
18.5 Developing Origin Hypotheses.
400 18.5.1 Initial Hypothesis.
18.5.2 Modifying the Initial Hypothesis.
18.6 Testing an Origin Hypothesis for Validity.
18.6.1 Means of Hypothesis Testing.
18.6.1.1
18.6.1.2
18.6.1.3
18.6.2 Analytical Techniques and Tools.
18.6.2.1 Time Line Analysis.
401 18.6.2.2 Fire Modeling.
18.6.2.3 Experimental Testing.
18.7 Selecting the Final Hypothesis.
18.7.1 Defining the Area of Origin.
18.7.2 Inconsistent Data.
18.7.3 Case File Review.
18.8 Origin Insufficiently Defined.
18.8.1 Large Area Adequate for Determination.
18.8.2 Justification of a Large Area of Origin.
402 18.8.3 Eyewitness Evidence of Origin Area.
Chapter 19 : Fire Cause Determination
19.1 Introduction.
19.1.1 Fire Cause Factors.
19.1.2 First Fuel Ignited.
19.1.3 Ignition Source.
19.1.4 Oxidant.
19.1.5 Ignition Sequence.
19.2 Overall Methodology.
404 19.2.1 Consideration of Data.
19.2.2 Sequence of Activities.
19.2.3 Point and Area of Origin.
19.3 Data Collection for Fire Cause Determination.
19.3.1 Identify Fuels in the Area of Origin.
19.3.1.1
405 19.3.1.2
19.3.1.3
19.3.1.4
19.3.1.5
19.3.1.6
19.3.2 Identify Source and Form of the Heat of Ignition.
19.3.2.1
19.3.3 Identify Items and Activities in Area of Origin.
19.3.4 * Identify the Oxidant.
19.3.4.1
19.3.4.2
19.3.4.3
406 19.3.5 Identify Ignition Sequence Data.
19.4 Analyze the Data.
19.4.1 Fuel Analysis.
19.4.1.1 Geometry and Orientation.
19.4.1.2 Ignition Temperature.
19.4.1.3 Quantity of Fuel.
19.4.2 Ignition Source Analysis.
19.4.2.1
19.4.2.2
19.4.3 Oxidant.
407 19.4.3.1
19.4.4 Ignition Sequence. 19.4.4.1
19.4.4.2
19.4.4.2.1
19.4.4.3
19.5 Developing Cause Hypotheses.
408 19.5.1
19.5.2
19.5.3
19.5.4
19.6 Testing the Cause Hypothesis for Validity.
19.6.1 Scientific Method.
19.6.2 Deductive Reasoning.
19.6.3 Hypotheses Testing Questions.
19.6.4 Means of Hypothesis Testing.
19.6.4.1 * Scientific Literature.
409 19.6.4.2 Fundamental Principles of Science.
19.6.4.3 Physical Experiments or Testing.
19.6.4.4 Cognitive Experiments.
19.6.4.5 Time Lines.
19.6.4.6 Fault Trees.
19.6.4.7 Additional Techniques.
19.6.5 Appropriate Use.
19.6.5.1 Cause Undetermined.
19.6.5.2 Ignition Source vs Fire Cause.
19.7 Selecting the Final Hypothesis.
410 19.7.1 Establishing the Cause.
19.7.2 Inconsistent Data.
19.7.3 Safety Devices and Features.
19.7.4 Undetermined Fire Cause.
19.8 Incident Classification.
Chapter 20 : Analyzing the Incident for Cause and Responsibility
20.1 * General. 20.1.1
411 20.1.2
20.1.3
20.2 The Cause of the Fire or Explosion.
20.3 The Cause of Damage to Property Resulting from the Incident. 20.3.1
20.3.2 Fire/Smoke Spread.
20.3.3 Other Consequential Damage.
20.4 The Cause of Bodily Injury or Loss of Life.
412 20.4.1 Fire/Smoke Spread.
20.4.2 Emergency Preparedness.
20.5 Determining Responsibility.
20.5.1 Nature of Responsibility.
20.5.2 Definition of Responsibility.
20.5.3 Assessing Responsibility.
20.5.4 Degrees of Responsibility.
413 Chapter 21 : Failure Analysis and Analytical Tools
21.1 * Introduction.
21.2 Time Lines. 21.2.1 General.
21.2.1.1
21.2.1.2
21.2.1.2.1
21.2.1.2.2
21.2.1.3
21.2.2 Hard Time (Actual). 21.2.2.1
414 21.2.2.2
21.2.3 Soft Time (Estimated). 21.2.3.1
21.2.3.2
21.2.3.3
21.2.4 Benchmark Events.
21.2.5 Multiple Time Lines.
21.2.5.1
21.2.5.2
21.2.5.3
415 21.2.5.4
416 21.3 Systems Analysis.
21.3.1 * Fault Trees.
21.3.1.1
417 21.3.1.2
419 21.3.1.4
21.3.1.5
21.3.1.6
21.3.1.7
420 21.3.1.8
21.3.2 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis.
21.3.2 Simplified Examples of Failure Mode and Effects Analysis Forms. 21.3.2.1
21.3.2.2
421 21.3.2.3
21.3.2.4
21.3.2.5
21.3.2.6
21.3.2.7
422 21.4 Mathematical Modeling. 21.4.1 General.
21.4.1.1
21.4.1.2
21.4.1.3 Limitations of Mathematical Modeling.
21.4.1.4
21.4.1.5
21.4.1.6 *
21.4.1.7
423 21.4.2 Heat Transfer Analysis. 21.4.2.1
21.4.2.2
21.4.3 Flammable Gas Concentrations.
21.4.4 Hydraulic Analysis. 21.4.4.1
21.4.4.2
21.4.5 Thermodynamic Chemical Equilibrium Analysis.
21.4.5.1
21.4.5.2
21.4.5.3
424 21.4.6 Structural Analysis.
21.4.7 * Egress Analysis.
21.4.8 * Fire Dynamics Analysis.
21.4.8.1
21.4.8.2
21.4.8.3
21.4.8.3.1 * Specialized Fire Dynamics Routines.
21.4.8.3.2 Zone Models.
21.4.8.3.3 Field, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Models.
21.4.9 Guidelines for Selection and Use of a Fire Model.
425 21.4.9.2 Select a Candidate Model.
21.4.9.3 Model Verification and Validation.
426 2010.Figure 21.4.9.3(b) Predicted Radiation Heat Flux versus Measured Radiation Heat Flux Values of Analytical, Zone,and Field M
2010.
427 21.4.9.4 Uncertainty and User Effects.
21.4.9.5 Documentation.
21.5 Fire Testing. 21.5.1 Role of Fire Testing.
21.5.1.1
21.5.1.2
21.5.2 * Fire Test Methods.
428 21.5.3 Limitations of Fire Testing.
21.6 Data Required for Modeling and Testing.
21.6.1 Materials and Contents. 21.6.1.1
21.6.1.2
21.6.2 Ventilation.
Chapter 22 : Explosions
22.1 * General. 22.1.1
22.1.2
22.1.3 Explosion Definition.
22.1.3.1 Hydrostatic Vessel Failure.
429 22.1.3.2 Flash Fires.
22.1.4
22.1.5
22.1.6
22.1.7
22.1.8
22.2 * Types of Explosions.
22.2.1 Mechanical Explosions.
22.2.2 * BLEVEs.
22.2.2.1
430 22.2.2.3
431 22.2.3.1.1 Combustion Explosions.
22.2.3.1.2
22.2.3.1.3
22.2.3.1.4
432 22.2.4 Electrical Explosions.
22.2.5 Nuclear Explosions.
22.3 Characterization of Explosion Damage.
22.3.1 Low-Order Damage.
434 22.4 Effects of Explosions.
22.4.1 Blast Overpressure and Wave Effect. 22.4.1.1 General.
435 22.4.1.1.1
436 22.4.1.1.2
22.4.1.1.3
22.4.1.3 Negative Pressure Phase. 22.4.1.3.1
22.4.1.3.2
22.4.1.4 Shape of Blast Wave (Front).
437 22.4.1.4.2
438 22.4.1.4.3
22.4.1.5.1
22.4.1.5.2
22.4.1.5.3
22.4.1.5.4
22.4.2 Shrapnel Effect (Projectiles). 22.4.2.1
439 22.4.2.2
22.4.3.1
22.4.3.2 *
22.4.4 Seismic Effect (Ground Shock).
440 22.5 Factors Controlling Explosion Effects.
22.5.1 Fuel.
22.5.2 Turbulence.
22.5.3 * Nature of Confining Space.
22.5.3.1
22.5.3.2
22.5.4 * Location and Magnitude of Ignition Source.
441 22.5.4.2
22.5.5 Venting.
22.5.5.1
22.5.5.2
22.5.6 Blast Pressure Wave (Blast Pressure Front) Modification by Reflection.
22.5.7 Blast Pressure Front Modification by Refraction and Blast Focusing.
22.6 Seated Explosions. 22.6.1 General.
442 22.6.1.1
22.6.1.2
22.6.1.3
22.6.2 Explosives.
22.6.3 Boiler and Pressure Vessels.
22.6.4 Confined Fuel Gas and Liquid Vapor.
22.6.5 BLEVE.
22.7 Nonseated Explosions.
443 22.7.1 Fuel Gases.
22.7.2 Pooled Flammable/Combustible Liquids.
22.7.3 * Dusts.
22.7.4 Backdraft (Smoke Explosion).
22.8 Gas/Vapor Combustion Explosions.
3 3
446 22.8.2.1 * Fuel-to-Air Ratio.
22.8.2.1.1
22.8.2.1.3
22.8.2.1.4 * Laminar Burning Velocity.
447 22.8.2.1.4.1
22.8.2.1.5 Expansion Ratio.
22.8.2.1.6 Laminar Flame Speed.
449 22.8.2.1.8
22.8.2.1.9
22.8.2.1.10
22.8.2.2 * Specific Gravity.
22.8.2.2.1
22.8.2.2.2
450 22.8.2.2.3
22.8.2.2.4
22.8.2.2.5 *
22.8.2.2.7 Specific Gravity of Ignitible Gaseous Mixtures.
451 22.8.3 Underground Migration of Fuel Gases.
22.8.3.1
22.8.3.2
22.8.3.3
22.8.4 * Multiple Explosions.
22.8.4.1
22.8.4.2
22.8.4.3
22.9 Dust Explosions. 22.9.1 General.
452 22.9.1.1 *
22.9.2 * Particle Size.
453 22.9.2.1
22.9.3 * Concentration.
454 22.9.3.1
22.9.3.2
22.9.4 Turbulence in Dust Explosions.
22.9.5 * Moisture.
455 22.9.6 Minimum Temperature and Ignition Energy for Dust. 22.9.6.1
22.9.6.2
22.9.6.3
22.9.6.4 Hybrid Dust Explosions.
22.9.7 Multiple Explosions.
22.10 * Backdraft (Smoke Explosions). 22.10.1
22.10.2
22.11 Unconfined Vapor Cloud Explosions.
22.11.1
456 22.11.2
22.11.3
22.11.4
22.12 * Explosives.
22.12.1 Low Explosives. 22.12.1.1
22.12.1.2
22.12.2 High Explosives. 22.12.2.1
22.12.2.2
457 22.13 Investigation of Explosive Incidents.
22.14 Investigating the Explosion Scene. 22.14.1 General.
22.14.1.1
22.14.1.2
22.14.2 Securing the Scene.
22.14.2.1 Establishing the Scene.
22.14.2.2 Obtain Background Information.
22.14.2.2.1
22.14.2.2.2
22.14.2.3 Establish a Scene Search Pattern.
458 22.14.2.3.1
22.14.2.3.2
22.14.2.3.3
22.14.2.3.4
22.14.2.4 Safety at the Explosion Scene.
22.14.2.4.1
22.14.2.4.2
22.14.2.4.3
22.14.2.4.4
22.14.3 Initial Scene Assessment. 22.14.3.1 General.
22.14.3.2 Identify Explosion or Fire.
22.14.3.2.1
459 22.14.3.2.2
22.14.3.3 Document Damage.
22.14.3.4 Seated or Nonseated Explosion.
22.14.3.5 Identify Type of Explosion.
22.14.3.6 Identify Potential General Fuel Type. 22.14.3.6.1
22.14.3.6.2
22.14.3.7 Establish the Origin.
22.14.3.8 Establish Ignition Source. 22.14.3.8.1
22.14.3.8.2
22.14.4 Detailed Scene Assessment.
460 22.14.4.1 Identify Damage Effects of Explosion.
22.14.4.1.1
22.14.4.1.2
22.14.4.1.3
22.14.4.1.4 Debris Field Diagram.
461 22.14.4.1.5
464 22.14.4.1.6
22.14.4.2 Identify Pre-Blast and Post-Blast Fire Damage.
22.14.4.2.1
22.14.4.2.2
22.14.4.3 Locate and Identify Articles of Evidence.
22.14.4.3.1
465 22.14.4.3.2
22.14.4.3.3
22.14.4.3.4
22.14.4.3.5
22.14.4.4 Identify Force Vectors.
22.14.4.4.1
22.14.4.4.2
22.14.4.4.3
22.15 Analyze Origin (Epicenter).
466 22.15.1
22.15.2
22.15.3
22.15.4
467 22.15.5
22.16 Analyze Fuel Source.
22.16.1
22.16.2
22.16.3
22.16.4
22.16.5
22.16.5.1
22.16.5.2
22.16.6
22.17 Analyze Ignition Source.
468 22.18 Analyze to Establish Cause. 22.18.1 General.
22.18.1.1
22.18.1.2
22.18.2 Time Line Analysis.
22.18.3 Damage Pattern Analysis.
22.18.3.1 Debris Analysis. 22.18.3.1.1
22.18.3.1.2
22.18.3.2 Relative Structural Damage Analysis.
22.18.4 * Correlation of Explosion Type and Energy with Damage Incurred.
22.18.5 Analysis of Damaged Items and Structures.
469 22.18.6 Correlation of Thermal Effects.
Chapter 23 : Incendiary Fires
23.1 * Introduction.
23.2 Incendiary Fire Indicators.
23.2.1 Multiple Fires.
23.2.1.1
23.2.1.2
23.2.1.3
23.2.1.4
23.2.1.5
23.2.1.6
470 23.2.1.7
23.2.2 Trailers.
23.2.2.1
23.2.2.2
23.2.2.3
23.2.2.4
23.2.2.5
23.2.3 Lack of Expected Fuel Load or Ignition Sources.
23.2.4 Unusual Fuel Load or Configuration.
23.2.5 Burn Injuries.
471 23.2.6 Incendiary Devices.
23.2.6.1 Delay Devices.
23.2.6.2 Presence of Ignitible Liquids in Area of Origin.
23.2.6.2.1
23.2.6.2.2
23.2.7 Assessment of Fire Growth and Fire Damage.
23.2.7.1 Examples of Incendiary Devices.
472 23.2.7.2
23.2.7.3
23.2.7.4 * Exotic Accelerants.
23.2.7.4.1
23.2.7.4.2
23.2.7.5
473 23.3 Potential Indicators Not Directly Related to Combustion.
23.3.1 Remote Locations with View Blocked or Obscured.
23.3.2 Forced Entry.
23.3.3 Fires Near Service Equipment and Appliances.
23.3.4 Removal or Replacement of Contents Prior to the Fire.
23.3.4.1 Replacement.
23.3.4.2 Removal.
23.3.4.3 Absence of Personal Items Prior to the Fire.
23.3.5 Entry Blocked or Obstructed. 23.3.5.1
23.3.5.2
474 23.3.6 Sabotage to the Structure or Fire Protection Systems. 23.3.6.1 Introduction.
23.3.6.1.1
23.3.6.1.2
23.3.6.2 Damage to Fire-Resistive Assemblies.
23.3.6.2.1
23.3.6.2.2
23.3.6.3 Damage to Fire Protection Systems.
23.3.6.3.1
23.3.6.3.2
23.3.6.3.3
23.3.7 Open Windows and Exterior Doors.
475 23.4 Other Evidentiary Factors. 23.4.1
23.4.1.1
23.4.1.2
23.4.2 Analysis of Confirmed Incendiary Fires.
23.4.2.1 * Geographic Areas, or Clusters.
23.4.2.2 Temporal Frequency.
23.4.2.3 Materials and Method.
23.4.3 Evidence of Other Crimes, Crime Concealment. 23.4.3.1
23.4.3.2
23.4.4 Indications of Financial Stress.
23.4.4.1
476 23.4.4.2
23.4.5 Existing or History of Code Violations. 23.4.5.1
23.4.5.2
23.4.6 Owner with Fires at Other Properties.
23.4.7 Overinsurance.
23.4.8 Timed Opportunity.
23.4.8.1 Fires During Severe Natural Conditions.
23.4.8.2 Fires During Civil Unrest.
23.4.8.2.1
23.4.8.2.2
23.4.8.3 Fire Department Unavailable.
23.4.9 * Motives for Firesetting Behavior. 23.4.9.1 General.
23.4.9.1.1
477 23.4.9.1.2
23.4.9.1.3
23.4.9.2 Motive Versus Intent.
23.4.9.3 * Classifications of Motive. 23.4.9.3.1 Introduction.
23.4.9.3.1.1
23.4.9.3.1.2
23.4.9.3.1.3
23.4.9.3.2 Vandalism.
23.4.9.3.2.1 Willful and Malicious Mischief.
478 23.4.9.3.2.2 Peer or Group Pressure.
23.4.9.3.3 * Excitement.
23.4.9.3.3.1
23.4.9.3.3.2
23.4.9.3.4 * Revenge. 23.4.9.3.4.1
23.4.9.3.4.2
479 23.4.9.3.5 * Crime Concealment.
23.4.9.3.6 * Profit.
23.4.9.3.6.1
23.4.9.3.6.2
23.4.9.3.7 * Extremism.
480 Chapter 24 : Fire and Explosion Deaths and Injuries
24.1 General.
24.2 * Mechanisms of Death and Injury.
24.2.1 * Carbon Monoxide.
24.2.1.1 *
24.2.1.2
24.2.1.3 *
24.2.1.4 *
481 24.2.1.5 *
24.2.1.6 *
24.2.1.7 *
24.2.2 * Cyanide.
24.2.2.1 *
24.2.2.2
24.2.2.3
24.2.2.4 *
482 24.2.2.5 *
24.2.2.6 *
24.2.3 Other Toxic Gases.
24.2.4 Hyperthermia.
24.2.4.1 *
24.2.4.2
24.2.5 * Skin Burns.
24.2.5.1 *
483 24.2.5.2
24.2.6 * Inhalation of Hot Gases.
24.2.7 Soot and Smoke.
24.2.8 Hypoxia.
24.2.9 Sublethal Inhalation Exposure Effects on the Individual.
24.2.9.1 Narcotic Gases.
484 24.2.9.2 Irritant Gases.
24.2.9.3 Smoke.
24.2.10 Explosion-Related Injuries.
24.2.10.1 Blast Pressure Injuries.
24.2.10.1.1
24.2.10.1.2
24.2.10.1.3
24.2.10.2 Shrapnel Injuries.
24.2.10.3 Thermal Injuries.
24.2.10.4 Building Collapse Injuries.
24.3 * Consumption of the Body by Fire.
485 24.3.1 Skin.
24.3.2 Muscle.
24.3.3 Bone.
24.3.4 Fat.
24.4 Postmortem Changes.
24.4.1 Lividity.
24.4.2 Rigor Mortis.
24.5 Investigating Fire Scenes with Fatalities.
486 24.5.1 Notification.
24.5.2 The Fire Department.
24.5.3 Team Investigation.
24.5.4 Safety.
24.5.5 Scene Documentation.
24.5.5.1
487 24.5.5.2
24.5.6 Victim Documentation.
488 24.5.7 Recovery of Bodies and Evidence.
24.5.7.2 Sifting of Debris.
489 24.5.7.3 Body Removal.
24.5.7.4 Victim Clothing.
24.5.8 Collection of Other Physical Evidence.
24.5.8.1
24.5.8.2 *
24.6 Investigating Fire Scenes with Injuries.
24.6.1 * Notification Laws.
24.6.2 Scene Documentation.
24.6.2.1
24.6.2.2
24.6.3 Victim Documentation.
490 24.6.4 Victim Timeline.
24.6.5 Physical Evidence.
24.7 Explosion Deaths and Injuries.
24.7.1 Collecting Physical Evidence from Explosions.
24.7.1.1
24.8 Post Scene Investigation of Injuries. 24.8.1 Burns.
24.8.1.1 * Degree of Burns.
24.8.1.2 Body Area (Distribution).
491 24.8.1.3
24.8.1.4
492 24.8.2 Inhalation Medical Evidence.
24.8.3 Hospital Tests and Documentation.
24.8.3.1
24.8.3.2
24.8.4 Access to Medical Evidence.
24.9 * Fire Death Pathological and Toxicological Examination.
493 24.9.1 The Coroner or Medical Examiner.
24.9.1.1
24.9.1.2
24.9.1.3
24.9.1.4 Collection of Physical Evidence.
24.9.2 Identifying the Remains.
24.9.2.1 Human vs. Animal Remains.
24.9.2.2 * Visual Identification.
24.9.2.3 Identification by Clothing and Personal Effects.
494 24.9.2.4 Fingerprint Identification.
24.9.2.5 X-ray Identification.
24.9.2.6 DNA Identification.
24.9.3 X-ray Examination.
496 24.9.4 Carbon Monoxide Levels.
24.9.4.1
24.9.5 Cyanide Levels.
497 24.9.6 Presence of Other Toxicants.
24.9.7 Smoke and Soot Exposure.
498 24.9.9 * Physical Trauma and Wounds.
24.9.10 Stomach Contents.
24.9.11 Internal Body Temperature.
24.9.12 Pre-Existing Medical Conditions.
24.9.13 Death Pre-Fire.
24.9.14 Death from a Medical Condition.
24.10 Analysis of Data.
24.10.1 Timeline Development.
24.10.2 Victim Activity.
24.10.3 Pre-Fire Victim Impairment.
499 24.10.4 Medical History.
24.10.5 Fire Pattern.
24.10.6 * Burns.
24.10.7 Clothing.
24.10.8 * Applications of Toxicology in Fire Investigation.
24.10.8.1 Toxicological Analysis Techniques.
24.10.8.2 Physiological Models.
24.10.8.2.1 The Stewart Equation.
24.10.8.2.2 *
500 24.10.8.2.3 * The Colburn Forster Kane (CFK) Equation.
24.10.8.2.4
501 24.10.8.2.5 *
Chapter 25 : Appliances
25.1 * Scope.
502 25.1.1
25.1.2
25.2 Appliance Scene Recording.
25.2.1 Recording Specific Appliances.
25.2.2 Measurements of the Location of the Appliance.
505 25.2.4 Document Appliance Information.
25.2.5 Gathering All of the Parts from the Appliance.
25.3 Origin Analysis Involving Appliances.
25.3.1 Relationship of the Appliance to the Origin.
25.3.2 Fire Patterns.
507 25.3.4 Reconstruction of the Area of Origin.
25.4 Cause Analysis Involving Appliances.
25.4.1 How the Appliance Generated Heat. 25.4.1.1
25.4.1.2
508 25.4.2 The Use and Design of the Appliance.
25.4.3 Electrical Appliances as Ignition Sources.
25.4.4 Photographing Appliance Disassembly.
512 25.4.6 Testing Exemplar Appliances.
25.5 Appliance Components.
25.5.1 Appliance Housings. 25.5.1.1 Introduction.
513 25.5.1.1.1
25.5.1.1.2
25.5.1.2.1
514 25.5.1.2.2
25.5.1.2.3
25.5.1.3 Aluminum.
515 25.5.1.4 Other Metals.
25.5.1.5 Plastic.
25.5.1.5.1
25.5.1.5.2
25.5.1.5.3
516 25.5.1.5.4
25.5.1.6 Wood.
25.5.1.7 Glass.
25.5.1.8 Ceramics.
25.5.2 Power Sources.
25.5.2.1 Power Cords.
25.5.2.1.1
25.5.2.1.2
25.5.2.1.3
25.5.2.2 Voltages Less than 120.
25.5.2.3 Batteries.
517 25.5.2.4 Overcurrent Protection.
25.5.2.4.1
519 25.5.3 Switches.
25.5.3.1 Manual Switches. 25.5.3.1.1
25.5.3.1.2
25.5.3.2 Automatic Switches.
25.5.3.2.1 Fuses and Circuit Breakers.
25.5.3.2.2 Temperature Switches.
25.5.3.2.2.1
25.5.3.2.2.2
25.5.3.2.2.3
25.5.3.2.2.4
25.5.3.2.2.5
520 25.5.3.2.2.6
25.5.3.2.2.7
25.5.3.2.2.8
25.5.3.2.2.9
25.5.3.2.2.10
25.5.4 Solenoids and Relays.
25.5.5 Transformers.
25.5.5.1
521 25.5.5.2
25.5.6 Motors.
25.5.6.1
25.5.6.2
25.5.6.3
25.5.7 Heating Elements.
25.5.7.1
25.5.7.2
25.5.7.3
25.5.8 Lighting.
522 25.5.8.1 Fluorescent Lighting Systems.
25.5.8.1.1
25.5.8.1.2
25.5.8.1.3
25.5.8.1.4
25.5.8.1.5
25.5.8.1.6
25.5.8.2 * High Intensity Discharge Lighting Systems.
25.5.8.2.1
25.5.8.2.2
25.5.8.2.3
523 25.5.8.2.4
25.5.8.2.5
25.5.9 Miscellaneous Components.
25.5.9.1
25.5.9.2
25.5.9.3
25.6 Common Residential Appliances.
25.6.1 Range or Oven.
25.6.2 Coffee Makers.
524 25.6.3 Toaster.
25.6.4 Electric Can Opener.
25.6.5 Refrigerator.
25.6.5.1
25.6.5.2
25.6.5.3
25.6.6 Dishwasher.
25.6.7 Microwave Oven.
25.6.8 Portable Space Heater.
525 25.6.9 Electric Blanket.
25.6.10 Window Air Conditioner Unit.
25.6.11 Hair Dryer and Hair Curler. 25.6.11.1
25.6.11.2
25.6.12 Clothes Iron.
25.6.13 Clothes Dryer. 25.6.13.1
25.6.13.2
25.6.14 Consumer Electronics.
526 25.6.15 Lighting.
Chapter 26 : Motor Vehicle Fires
26.1 * Introduction.
26.1.1
26.1.2
26.1.3
26.2 Vehicle Investigation Safety.
26.2.1
26.2.2
26.2.3
527 26.3 Fuels in Vehicle Fires.
26.3.1 Ignitible Liquids.
528 26.3.1.1 * Hot Surface Ignition.
26.3.2 Gaseous Fuels.
529 26.3.3 Solid Fuels. 26.3.3.1
2
530 26.3.3.2
531 26.4 Ignition Sources.
26.4.1 Open Flames.
26.4.2 Electrical Sources.
26.4.2.1
26.4.2.2 Overloaded Wiring.
532 26.4.2.3 Electrical High Resistance Connections.
26.4.2.4 Electrical Short Circuits and Arcs — Electric Discharge.
26.4.2.5 * Arc, Carbon, Tracking.
26.4.2.6 * Lamp Bulbs and Filaments.
26.4.2.6.1
26.4.2.7 External Electrical Sources Used in Vehicles.
26.4.3 Hot Surfaces. 26.4.3.1 *
533 26.4.3.2 *
26.4.4 Mechanical Sparks.
26.4.5 Smoking Materials.
26.5 System Identification and Function.
26.5.1 Fuel Systems.
26.5.1.1 Vacuum/Low-Pressure Carbureted Systems.
534 26.5.1.2 * High-Pressure Fuel-Injected Systems.
26.5.1.3 Diesel Fuel Systems.
26.5.1.3.1
26.5.1.3.2
26.5.1.4 Natural Gas.
535 26.5.1.5 Propane Fuel.
26.5.1.6 Turbochargers.
26.5.2 Emission Control System.
26.5.2.1
26.5.2.2
26.5.2.3
26.5.2.4 Exhaust System.
536 26.5.2.4.1 Diesel Particulate Filters (DPFs).
26.5.2.5
26.5.3 Motor Vehicle Electrical Systems. 26.5.3.1
26.5.3.2
26.5.3.3 Twelve-Volt Electrical Systems.
26.5.3.3.1
26.5.3.3.2
537 26.5.3.3.3
26.5.3.3.4 Multiplex Wiring or Serial Data Wiring.
26.5.3.3.5 * Arc Mapping.
26.5.3.4 Other Electrical Systems.
26.5.3.5 Event Data Recorders (EDRs).
26.5.3.6 Engine Control Modules (ECMs).
26.5.3.7 Tracking Devices.
26.5.4 Mechanical Power Systems.
538 26.5.4.1 Lubrication Systems.
26.5.4.2 Liquid Cooling Systems.
26.5.4.3 Air-Cooled Systems.
26.5.4.4 Electric Motors.
26.5.5 Mechanical Power Distribution.
26.5.5.1 Mechanically Geared Transmissions.
26.5.5.2 Hydraulically Geared Transmission.
26.5.5.2.1
539 26.5.5.2.2
26.5.6 Accessories to the Mechanical Power System.
26.5.7 Hydraulic Braking System.
26.5.8 Windshield Washer Systems.
26.6 Body Systems.
26.6.1 Interior Finishes and Accessories.
26.6.2 Cargo Areas.
26.7 Motor Vehicle Fire Scenes.
540 26.7.1 Vehicle Identification.
26.7.1.1
26.7.2 Vehicle Fire Scene History.
26.7.2.1
26.7.3 Vehicle Particulars. 26.7.3.1
541 26.7.3.2
26.7.4 Documenting the Vehicle at the Fire Scene.
26.7.4.1
26.7.4.2
26.7.4.3
26.7.5 Documenting the Vehicle Away from the Scene. 26.7.5.1
26.7.5.2
26.8 Motor Vehicle Examinations. 26.8.1 General.
542 26.8.1.1 *
546 26.8.1.2
551 26.8.2 Examination of Vehicle Systems.
26.8.2.1
26.8.2.2
26.8.2.3
26.8.3 Switches, Handles, and Levers.
26.9 Total Burns.
552 26.10 Special Considerations for Incendiary Vehicle Fires.
26.10.1
26.10.2
26.11 Vehicle Ignition Components. 26.11.1 Inspection of Cut Key-Style Ignition Lock.
554 26.11.1.1 Ignition Lock Cylinder.
26.11.1.2 Post-Fire Recovery of the Lock Cylinder.
26.11.1.2.1
558 26.11.1.4 Unrecovered Ignition Lock Remains.
559 26.11.1.4.1 Other Considerations.
26.12 Vehicles in Structures.
26.12.1
26.12.2
26.13 Recreational Vehicles.
560 26.13.1 General.
26.13.2 Recreational Vehicle Investigation Safety.
26.13.2.1 Confined Spaces.
26.13.2.2 Airborne Particulates.
26.13.2.3 Energy Sources.
26.13.2.4 Stability.
26.13.3 Recreational Vehicle (RV).
26.13.3.1 Motor Home.
26.13.3.2 Fifth-Wheel Travel Trailer.
26.13.3.3 Folding Camping Trailer.
26.13.3.4 Travel Trailer.
26.13.3.5 Dispensing.
561 26.13.3.6 Chassis.
26.13.3.7 Listed.
26.13.4 Unique Systems or Components.
26.13.4.1 Shore Power.
26.13.4.2 Generator.
26.13.4.3 Automatic Generator Starting System (AGS).
26.13.4.4 Electrical Converter.
26.13.4.5 Electrical Inverter.
26.13.4.6 Batteries.
26.13.4.7 Means of Escape.
26.13.4.8 Liquid Holding Tank.
26.13.5 Systems.
562 26.13.5.1 Electrical Systems.
26.13.5.1.1 Shore Power.
26.13.5.2 Propane Systems.
26.13.5.2.1 Propane Regulators.
26.13.5.2.2 Maximum Propane Container Capacities.
26.13.5.2.3 Propane System Shielding.
26.13.5.2.4 Stoves.
26.13.5.2.5 Water Heaters.
26.13.5.2.6 Furnaces.
26.13.5.2.7 Anhydrous Ammonia Absorption Refrigerators.
563 26.13.5.3 Safety Systems.
26.13.6 Construction. 26.13.6.1 Exterior Construction.
26.13.6.2 Interior.
26.13.7 Recreational Vehicle Examinations.
26.13.7.1
26.13.7.2
26.13.7.3 Investigating Systems and Components Unique to Recreational Vehicles.
26.13.8 Ignition Sources.
26.13.9 Recreational Vehicle Identification.
564 26.13.10 Recreational Vehicle Information.
26.13.11 Recreational Vehicles in Structures, Parks, and Campgrounds. 26.13.11.1
26.14 Heavy Equipment.
26.14.1 Mediumand Heavy-Duty Trucks, and Buses.
26.14.1.1
26.14.1.2
26.14.1.3
26.14.1.4
26.14.1.5
565 26.14.1.6
26.14.1.6.1
26.14.1.7
26.14.2 Mass Transit Vehicles
26.14.3 Earth-Moving Equipment.
26.14.4 Forestry/Logging Equipment.
26.14.5 Landfill Equipment.
26.14.6 Agricultural Equipment.
26.15 Agricultural Equipment and Implements Introduction.
566 26.15.1 Agricultural Equipment Investigation Safety.
26.15.1.1
26.15.1.2
26.15.1.3
26.15.1.4
26.15.2 Equipment Classification and Description.
26.15.2.1 Farm Tractors.
26.15.2.1.1 Power Take Off (PTO).
26.15.2.1.2 Hydraulic Components.
26.15.2.2 Combines.
567 26.15.2.2.2 Threshing/Crop Cleaning System.
26.15.2.2.3 Unloading System.
26.15.2.3 Forage Harvesters.
568 26.15.2.4 Cotton Pickers.
26.15.2.4.1 Row Units.
569 26.15.2.4.2 Moistener System.
26.15.2.4.3 Hydraulic System.
26.15.2.4.4 Lubrication System.
26.15.2.5 Sprayers.
26.15.2.6 Windrowers, Floaters, Spreaders, Fertilizer Applicators.
570 26.15.2.7 Baling Equipment.
26.15.2.7.1 Round Balers.
26.15.2.7.1.1 Baling Chamber.
26.15.2.7.1.2 Gate.
26.15.2.7.2 Square Balers.
26.15.2.7.3 Pickups.
26.15.2.7.4 Chain Drive Systems.
26.15.2.7.5 Hydraulic System.
26.15.2.7.6 Electrical System.
26.15.3 Unique Safety Concerns. 26.15.3.1 Fluid Capacities.
26.15.3.2 Internal Equipment.
26.15.3.3 Overhead Electrical Hazards.
571 26.15.3.4 Elevated Basket.
26.15.3.5 Gate Failure.
26.15.3.6 Hydraulic Bale Ejector.
26.15.4 Unique Fire Cause Concerns. 26.15.4.1 Scrapping.
26.15.4.2 Foreign Combustible Materials.
572 26.15.4.3 Maintenance.
26.15.5 Fuels.
26.15.5.1 Diesel Fuel.
26.15.5.2 Biodiesel.
26.15.5.3 Plastics.
26.15.5.4 Composite Materials.
573 26.15.5.5 Rubber.
26.15.6 Ignition Sources.
26.15.6.1 Electrical Sources.
26.15.6.2 Hot Surfaces.
26.15.6.3 Mechanical Sparks.
26.15.6.4 Friction.
26.15.6.5 Brakes.
26.15.6.6 Slip Clutch.
26.15.6.7 Rotating Shafts.
26.15.6.8 Rotating Bearings.
575 26.16 Hybrid Vehicles.
26.16.1 Hybrid Vehicle Investigation Safety.
26.16.2 Hybrid Vehicle Technology.
26.16.3 Investigation of Hybrid Vehicle Fires.
26.17 Towing Considerations.
26.17.1
26.17.2
576 26.18 Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicles.
26.18.1 Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicle Investigation Safety.
26.18.2 Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicle Description.
26.18.2.1
26.18.2.2
Chapter 27 : Wildfire Investigations
27.1 * Introduction.
577 27.1.1
27.2 Wildfire Fuels.
27.2.1 Fuel Condition Analysis.
27.2.1.1
27.2.1.2 *
27.2.2 Ground Fuels.
27.2.2.1 Duff.
27.2.2.2 Roots.
27.2.3 Surface Fuels.
27.2.3.1 Fine Dead Wood.
578 27.2.3.1.1
27.2.3.1.2
27.2.3.2 Dead Leaves and Coniferous Litter.
27.2.3.2.1
27.2.3.3 Grass.
27.2.3.4 Downed Logs, Stumps, and Large Limbs.
27.2.3.4.1
27.2.3.5 Low Brush and Reproduction.
27.2.3.5.1
27.2.4 Aerial Fuels.
579 27.2.4.1 Tree Branches and Crowns.
27.2.4.1.1
27.2.4.1.2
27.2.4.2 Tree Moss.
27.2.4.3 High Brush.
27.2.5 Species.
27.2.6 Fuel Size.
27.2.7 Fuel Moisture Content.
27.2.8 Oil Content.
27.3 Weather.
580 27.3.1 Weather History.
27.3.2 Temperature.
27.3.3 Relative Humidity.
27.3.4 Wind Influence.
27.3.4.1 Meteorological Winds.
27.3.4.2 Diurnal Winds.
27.3.4.3 Foehn Winds.
27.3.4.4 Fire Winds.
27.4 Topography.
27.4.1 Slope.
581 27.4.2 Aspect.
27.5 Fire Shape.
27.5.2 Fire Flanks.
27.5.3 Fire Heel.
27.5.4 Factors Affecting Fire Spread.
27.5.4.1 Lateral Confinement.
582 27.5.4.2 Fuel Influence.
27.5.4.3 Suppression.
27.5.4.3.1 Fire Breaks.
27.5.4.3.2 Air Drops.
27.5.4.3.3 Firing Out.
27.5.5 Other Natural Mechanisms of Fire Spread.
27.5.5.1 Embers and Firebrands.
27.5.5.2 Fire Storms.
27.5.5.3 Animals.
27.6 Indicators.
27.6.1 Wildfire V-Shaped Patterns.
583 27.6.2 Degree of Damage.
584 27.6.4 Angle of Char.
27.6.4.1 Angle of Char, Pole Type Fuels.
586 27.6.4.2 Angle of Char, Foliage Crown.
588 27.6.6 Cupping.
27.6.8 Exposed and Protected Fuels.
590 27.6.10 Depth of Char.
593 27.6.13 Curling.
594 27.7 Origin Investigation.
595 27.7.1 Initial Area of Investigation.
27.7.1.1 Observations of Reporting Parties.
27.7.1.2 Observations of Initial Attack Crew.
27.7.1.3 Observations of Airborne Personnel.
27.7.1.4 Observations of Other Witnesses.
27.7.1.5 Satellite Imaging or Remote Sensing.
27.7.2 General Origin Area.
27.7.2.1 Specific Origin Area.
27.7.2.2 Point of Origin.
27.7.3 General Origin Investigation Techniques.
27.7.3.1 Protection of General Origin.
27.7.3.2 Identifying Evidence.
596 27.7.3.3 General Principles of Burn Pattern Interpretation.
27.7.3.4 Walk the Exterior Perimeter of the General Origin.
27.7.3.5 Identify Advancing Fire.
27.7.3.6 Enter the General Origin Area.
27.7.3.7 Working the General Origin Area.
597 27.7.4 Specific Origin Investigation Techniques.
27.7.4.1 Walk Specific Origin Perimeter.
27.7.4.2 Establish Grid Lanes.
27.7.4.3 Search Each Lane.
27.7.5 Search Equipment.
27.7.5.1 Magnifying Glass.
27.7.5.2 Magnet.
598 27.7.5.3 Straight Edge.
27.7.5.4 Probe.
27.7.5.5 Comb.
27.7.5.6 Hand-Held Lights.
27.7.5.7 Air Blower.
27.7.5.8 Metal Detector.
27.7.5.9 Sifting Screen.
27.7.5.10 Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) Recorder.
27.8 Fire Cause Determination.
27.8.1 Natural Fire Cause.

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NFPA 921 2021
$64.58